High Ss Research Articles

Hypnosis and autonomy: a moderator analysis.

The study focused on autonomy as a moderator variable in the prediction of subjectively reported hypnotic depth. Ss in the experimental part of the study were 56 undergraduate psychology and education majors classified as either high or low in autonomy. Ss who were equated on capacity for absorption were individually administered 1 of 3 hypnotic inductions: an authoritarian induction, a permissive heteroinduction, or a self-hypnosis induction. The study had a double-blind design. The data suggest that situational manipulation has greater impact on low than on high autonomy Ss. Individual-difference variables such as absorption, have greater impact on hypnotic depth for high than for low autonomy Ss. The data indicate that the hypnotic behavior of high autonomy Ss is more likely to be self-congruent and less likely to be demand-congruent. A factor-analytic inquiry of absorption confirmed the importance of affective/regressive capacity for hypnotic functioning for high autonomy Ss. The study supported the alternate-path perspective of hypnosis.

Hypnosis and transference: a measure of archaic involvement.

20 Likert-type items were derived directly from Shor's theoretical propositions concerning the occurrence of transference-like experiences among hypnotic Ss. In 3 separate experiments, this 20-item Archaic Involvement Measure (AIM) was administered to a total of 452 Ss following termination of both group and individually administered hypnosis procedures. Results suggest that: (a) AIM is internally consistent, and is significantly correlated with hypnotizability; (b) among high hypnotizable Ss, AIM scores assess an important aspect of hypnotic experience which is relatively unrelated to behavioral response to hypnotic suggestions; (c) there is no change in AIM scores associated with the sex of the hypnotist or S; and (d) there are 3 clusters of AIM items: perceived power of the hypnotist, positive emotional bond to the hypnotist, and fear of negative appraisal. Possible validational and clinical research applications of AIM are presented, along with a plea for further empirical examination of the relational dimensions of hypnosis.

Music absorption and hypnotizability.

The present study investigated differences between high (N = 15), medium (N = 20), and low (N = 16) hypnotizable Ss' involvement in imaginative versus nonimaginative music. Ss were first screened for hypnotizability with the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A (Shor & E. Orne, 1962). In a second session presented as a study of music appreciation, Ss listened to classical music of high and low rated music imaginativeness. Ss' involvement was indexed by absorption, imagery elaboration reported in open-ended essays, and reaction time to a pure tone. High hypnotizable Ss reported more absorption than low hypnotizable Ss, regardless of the imaginativeness level of the music. Ss reported more imagery elaboration in the imaginative than in the low imaginative passages. High hypnotizable Ss tended to differ in their imagery elaboration in response to the imaginative passages but not in response to the nonimaginative passages. Reaction time results were nonsignificant. No sex differences were found. Medium hypnotizable Ss were indistinguishable from both high and low hypnotizable Ss. The findings are generally compatible with J. R. Hilgard's (1970, 1974) construct of imaginative involvement.

Changes in body attitude as a function of posthypnotic suggestions

This study hypothesized that highly hypnotizable Ss who remained amnesic for posthypnotic suggestions to improve body attitude would show greater changes than Ss who were not amnesic. Ss given simulating instructions were used as a comparison group to assess experimental demands. 48 females were screened with the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A (Shor & E. Orne, 1962) and assigned to one of 4 conditions: (a) high hypnotizable with amnesia suggestions, (b) high hypnotizable without suggested amnesia, (c) low hypnotizable simulators with amnesia, and (d) low hypnotizable simulators without suggested amnesia. A fifth group was formed of those high hypnotizable Ss who remembered the suggestion despite instructions to the contrary. The Body Attitude Scale (Kurtz, 1966) was administered prior to and 3 days after the experimental suggestions. Results generally demonstrated that high hypnotizable amnesic Ss manifested the greatest attitudinal and phenomenological changes as a result of the posthypnotic suggestion, although conclusions were tempered by performance of simulating Ss. The implications for hypnosis research and clinical practice are discussed.

The effects of hypnosis upon cognitive responses to persuasive communication.

Several writers have suggested that hypnotic responsiveness is directly related to the content of S's covert self-statements. To test this notion, low and high hypnotizable Ss in either hypnosis or waking conditions were exposed to a recorded message advocating that college seniors be required to pass a comprehensive exam in order to graduate. Following message presentation, Ss listed all of the thoughts which occurred to them while listening to the message; these thoughts were later coded as counterarguments, favorable thoughts, or neutral thoughts. Hypnotized Ss generated significantly fewer counterarguments and agreed more with the message than waking Ss. In addition, high hypnotizable Ss (in both waking and hypnosis conditions) produced significantly more favorable thoughts and agreed more with the message than low hypnotizable Ss. Results, therefore, provided a demonstration of the differential impact of context (induction) and trait (hypnotizability level) upon different cognitive phenomena. Implications for the occurrence of hypersuggestible behavior are discussed.

Effects of hypnotic analgesia and hypnotizability on experimental ischemic pain.

Mechanisms of hypnotic analgesia are still poorly understood and conflicting data are reported regarding the underlying neurochemical correlates. The present study was designed to investigate the effects of hypnotically induced analgesia and hypnotizability on experimental ischemic pain, taking into account pain and distress tolerance as well as the neurochemical correlates. 11 high hypnotizable Ss and 10 low hypnotizable Ss, as determined by scores on the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C (Weitzenhoffer & E. R. Hilgard, 1962), were administered an ischemic pain test in both waking and hypnotic conditions. The following variables were measured: (a) pain and distress tolerance, (b) anxiety levels, and (c) plasma concentrations of beta-endorphin and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). Results confirmed significant increases of pain and distress tolerance during hypnosis as compared to the waking state, with positive correlations between pain and distress relief and hypnotizability. Moreover, a hypnotically induced dissociation between the sensory-discriminative and the affective-motivational dimensions of pain experience was found, but only in high hypnotizable Ss. Hypnotic analgesia was unrelated to anxiety reduction and was not mediated either by endorphins or by ACTH.

Anxiety sensitivity and history of panic as predictors of response to hyperventilation

In this study, we examined the effects of anxiety sensitivity on the response to hyperventilation in college students with and without a history of spontaneous panic attacks. Reiss et al.'s ( Behav. Res. Ther. 24, 1–8, 1986) Anxiety Sensitivity Index and Norton et al.'s ( Behav. Ther. 17, 239–252, 1986) Panic Attack Questionnaire were used to select Ss. Following five min of voluntary hyperventilation, high anxiety sensitivity Ss reported more anxiety and more hyperventilation sensations than did low anxiety sensitivity Ss. A history of panic was only associated with enhanced responding to hyperventilation in Ss with high anxiety sensitivity; low anxiety sensitivity Ss who had experience with panic were no more responsive than low anxiety sensitivity Ss who had never had a panic attack. These findings suggest that high anxiety sensitivity may be a crucial determinant of panic attacks provoked by biological challenges (e.g. hyperventilation, sodium lactate infusion).

From short-term memory capacity toward the EFG resonance code

The difference T of 4.42 msec between the eighth and the ninth harmonic of EEG waves is the smallest moment of consciousness. Integer multiples of T as 8T, 9T, 12T, 18T, 24T and 28T are resonances at harmonics or (as, for example, 3T, 4T and 10T) differences harmonics. Memory as an energy landscape is decoded and encoded by stimuli-elicited resonance chains measuring the energy of waveforms. The P300 component (with a minimum latency of 64T) is the resonance at the fundamental itself. Memory span is identical with the number of zero-crossings of evoked potentials between the onset of conscious information processing and the P300. Because high IQ Ss have a more efficient brain energy metabolism and hence a greater memory span than low IQ Ss, their EEG is more complex. In the EEG of low IQ Ss the upper harmonics (e.g. the ninth and eighth) are not expressed, and the smallest time (and energy) window for information processing is therefore not lT but longer. Because each resonance at a harmonic represents a binary decision and because the upper bound of the possible length of resonance cascades corresponds with short-term memory capacity, memory span becomes rate-limiting for general mental power.

Personality and conditioning: A test of four models.

Four experiments were conducted to test hypotheses derived from 4 alternative models of individual differences in instrumental conditioning. A standard go--no-go discrimination learning task was used in each of the 4 experiments. The results indicate that individual differences in performance of this discrimination are more consistently and strongly associated with impulsivity and anxiety than with extraversion and neuroticism. In each of the experiments, high anxiety hindered the learning of a go--no-go discrimination more among high impulsive Ss than among low impulsive Ss, and in 2 of the experiments high anxiety actually facilitated learning among low impulsive Ss. These findings are incompatible with Eysenck's and Gray's hypotheses regarding extraversion but are not inconsistent with Newman's. Aspects of these results do support Spence's and Gray's models of anxiety and instrumental conditioning. However, both of these models were contradicted by other trends in the data. A modification of Gray's model of impulsivity and anxiety that emphasizes the role of expectancies was proposed to fit these data.

Personality and conditioning: a test of four models.

Four experiments were conducted to test hypotheses derived from 4 alternative models of individual differences in instrumental conditioning. A standard go--no-go discrimination learning task was used in each of the 4 experiments. The results indicate that individual differences in performance of this discrimination are more consistently and strongly associated with impulsivity and anxiety than with extraversion and neuroticism. In each of the experiments, high anxiety hindered the learning of a go--no-go discrimination more among high impulsive Ss than among low impulsive Ss, and in 2 of the experiments high anxiety actually facilitated learning among low impulsive Ss. These findings are incompatible with Eysenck's and Gray's hypotheses regarding extraversion but are not inconsistent with Newman's. Aspects of these results do support Spence's and Gray's models of anxiety and instrumental conditioning. However, both of these models were contradicted by other trends in the data. A modification of Gray's model of impulsivity and anxiety that emphasizes the role of expectancies was proposed to fit these data.

Hypnosis and the recall of visually presented material: a failure to replicate Stager and Lundy.

Abstract Stager and Lundy (1985) found hypnotic hypermnesia without increased memory errors. The present study, an attempted partial replication of Stager and Lundy (1985), presented Ss with free recall and multiple choice questions about a short movie they had seen a week earlier. The experimental Ss, who were hypnotized, given hypermnesia suggestions, and retested, did not generally increase their accurate memory scores on posttest; the Stager and Lundy (1985) findings were thus not confirmed. An increase in memory scores did occur, however, but only with high hypnotizable Ss, whether they were hypnotized or not, and only with multiple choice questions. The high hypnotizable Ss had the greatest increase in inaccurate memory scores on the free recall questions.

Posthypnotic Amnesia, The Hidden Observer Effect, and Duality During Hypnotic Age Regression

Abstract The present study sought to explore potential response differences to a suggestion for posthypnotic amnesia between those high hypnotizable Ss who do and those who do not manifest the hidden observer effect. In line with the hypothesis that Ss who responded to the hidden observer suggestion are more highly engaged in cognitive monitoring of their experience and behavior (Nogrady, McConkey, Laurence, & Perry, 1983), it was predicted that these Ss would recall more Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C (Weitzenhoffer & Hilgard, 1962) hypnotic items, and in greater detail, following the reversal of amnesia than would their no-hidden observer counterparts. In this regard, both the quantity and the quality of posthypnotic recall was examined in 15 high, 11 high-medium, and 11 low hypnotizable Ss. Data on posthypnotic recall from low and high-medium hypnotizable Ss revealed the comparability of the present sample to samples of other studies that have investigated posthypnotic recall using standardized hypnotizability scales. Contrary to prediction, hidden observer Ss recalled significantly fewer hypnotic items and in less detail. Similar results were found when high hypnotizable Ss were dichotomized with respect to the presence or absence of duality in age regression (Perry & Walsh, 1978). Results are discussed in terms of implications for future research.

Perception and recall of aversive material as a function of personality type

Relationships between personality dimensions of extraversion (E), neuroticism (N), psychoticism (P) and barrier (B) and patterns of psychophysiological responding during exposure to and subsequent recall of aversive and non-aversive material were investigated. Sixteen male volunteers were asked to recall the critical features of 10 film segments containing either neutral or aversive material. Heart rate (HR), skin conductance (SC) and electromyographic (EMG) responses were recorded throughout the session. Analysis showed that during exposure to aversive material, high BE Ss recorded high levels of autonomic responding and low levels of muscle tension, while during recall, they showed reduced autonomic activity and significantly higher levels of muscle tension. Low BE Ss showed significantly higher levels of muscle tension during film presentation and significantly lower levels during recall, with little change in autonomic reactivity between treatments. Recall data indicate that high BE Ss had significantly better recall under all conditions. N and P differences were unrelated to patterns of psychophysiological responding or efficiency of recall.

Personality as modifier of the life event-distress relationship: A longitudinal structural equation model

A structural equation model is presented of the way in which personalityfactors may modify responsiveness to life events and examines this model using data collected in the Groningen Study on a sample of 296 Dutch adults. Three definitions of vulnerability were studied: neuroticism, self-esteem and locus of control. Unlike the Brown/Harris model our model does not assume ‘all or none’ variables but considers exposure to provoking factors, vulnerability and symptom levels as continuous variables. The analysis suggested the following major conclusions. Firstly, previous symptom level was strongly related to current symptom level. The strenght of the relationship was independent from vulnerability. Secondly, the three personality factors did not modify the response to exposure to adversity. Thirdly, locus of control and self-esteem somewhat modified the impact of desirable events. Among high vulnerability Ss (external, low self-esteem) desirable events appeared to reduce symptom level. The implications of these findings for the role of personality in influencing symptom level of Brown/Harris vulnerability model are discussed.

Private self-consciousness and perceptions of self-consistency

The relationships of self-consciousness and mirror induced self-awareness to judgements of self-consistency were investigated. Ss were selected on the basis of private and public self-consciousness scores (Feningstein, Scheier and Buss, 1975; J. consult. clin. Psychol. 43 522–527). They then completed the Gergen-Morse Self-Consistency measure (Gergen and Morse, 1967; Proc. Am. Psychol. Ass. 75, 207–208) under either low or high self-awareness conditions. High self-awareness condition Ss completed the measure while sitting in front of a mirror; no mirror was present for low self-awareness condition Ss. The results indicated that high private self-consciousness was related to perceptions of enhanced self-consistency. No effects related to level of public self-consciousness or to mirror induced self-awareness emerged. The implications of chronic self-reflection for the nature of one's self-concept are discussed.

EEG asymmetry during covert mental activity and its relationship with hypnotizability.

Abstract Parieto-occipital EEG was recorded bilaterally while 20 high and 20 low hypnotizable Ss performed, in the eyes-closed condition, 2 covert right-hemisphere tasks (visual long-term memory and fantasy) and 2 covert left-hemisphere tasks (multiplication and verbal long-term memory). Ss were not, however, hypnotized during any aspect of the psychophysiological testing. After each task, Ss rated orally their degree of involvement in the tasks. The integrated amplitude alpha, the alpha density, and the alpha ratio as a measure of hemispheric asymmetry, were evaluated. Finally, the proportion of relatively greater right activation periods during right-hemisphere tasks minus the analogous proportion during left-hemisphere tasks was used as index of hemispheric specificity. The high hypnotizable Ss showed significantly higher alpha amplitude than the low hypnotizables; the alpha amplitude was correlated with hypnotizability, while the alpha density was not. The alpha amplitude of the right hemisphere durin...

Personality correlates of Benton's visual retention test

Bivariate correlations revealed that only L was highly significantly (negatively) correlated with the ability to retain and reproduce geometrical figures (Benton Visual Retention Test). Personality groups were generated using extreme cut-offs for E and N, as well as P and L. Extraverts produced similar error profiles to introverts. High trait N Ss tended to emit more errors of omission compared to low trait N persons, otherwise the performance profiles were not statistically different. Several E × N interactions emerged however, with stable introverts yielding significantly more correct reproductions and a lower error frequency than the other groups, with dysthymics (introverted neurotics) performing worst, the latter group further characterised by a greater number of perseveration and mislocation errors. High and low P-scoring Ss did not differ significantly in their ability to reproduce figures, with the exception of perseveration errors which were more common amongst P + Ss. L + individuals displayed inferior performance compared to L− Ss. An analysis of error categories revealed that L + emitted more distortion, left- and right-handed errors. There was no indication of any P × L interaction effect.

Hypnotizability, imaging ability, and the detection of embedded objects.

Abstract 40 Ss participated in an experiment designed to determine the influence of hypnotizability and imaging ability on cognitive performance. Individuals were asked to locate objects embedded within a series of pictorial scenes. For each scene, Ss were allocated a total of 6 minutes to find as many objects as possible. The objects were described to Ss prior to their search for them. Although there were no significant differences in total number of objects found as a function of hypnotizability, high hypnotizable Ss made significantly fewer errors in locating and identifying objects. This difference was attributed to the superior ability of the high hypnotizable Ss in visualizing the hidden objects and in using produced images as a means for correctly identifying them. This did not appear to be the case for the low hypnotizable Ss. It was this difference in search strategy that may ultimately have led to the error difference between high and low hypnotizable Ss.

Duality, dissociation, and memory creation in highly hypnotizable subjects.

Abstract The present paper reports an initial attempt to create a pseudomemory in a group of highly hypnotizable individuals. It was found that for approximately 50% of Ss tested, recall of a specific event was modified when Ss integrated hypnotically suggested inaterial which then posthypnotically was believed to be veridical. This modification in a previously reported memory was linked to a particular cognitive style found in high hypnotizalde Ss, namely dual cognitive functioning. Ss reporting duality in hypnotic age regression, and, to a lesser extent, the hidden observer effect, were found to be the most prone to accept a suggested memory as real. These findings suggest the need to emphasize the importance of a cognitive-phenomenological approach to hypnosis and hypnotizability.

Cognitive competition and hypnotic behavior: whither absorption?

Abstract According to the widely held absorption notion, the successful response to hypnotic suggestions requires S to focus attention on the content of these suggestions and to avoid incompatible and contradictory cognitive activities. This assumption was tested by exposing high, middle, and low hypnotizable Ss continuously to incompatible suggestions and images as they attempted to respond to the direct suggestions of the hypnotist. Performance under these circumstances was substantially as effective as in baseline sessions (without incompatible suggestions) for the high and medium hypnotizable Ss. On the other hand, fewer than half of the low hypnotizable Ss responded successfully. The results are viewed as compatible with both a social enactment and a neodissociation interpretation of hypnosis.