High Sodium Research Articles

Abscisic acid signaling gates salt-induced responses of plant roots

Soil salinity presents a dual challenge for plants, involving both osmotic and ionic stress. In response, plants deploy distinct yet interconnected mechanisms to cope with these facets of salinity stress. In this investigation, we observed a substantial overlap in the salt (NaCl)-induced transcriptional responses of Arabidopsis roots with those triggered by osmotic stress or the plant stress hormone abscisic acid (ABA), as anticipated. Notably, a specific cluster of genes responded uniquely to sodium (Na+) ions and are not regulated by the known monovalent cation sensing mechanism MOCA1. Surprisingly, expression of sodium-induced genes exhibited a negative correlation with the ABA response and preceded the activation of genes induced by the osmotic stress component of salt. Elevated exogenous ABA levels resulted in the complete abolition of sodium-induced responses. Consistently, the ABA insensitive snrk2.2/2.3 double mutant displayed prolonged sodium-induced gene expression, coupled with increased root cell damage and root swelling under high salinity conditions. Moreover, ABA biosynthesis and signaling mutants were unable to redirect root growth to avoid high sodium concentrations and had increased sodium accumulation in the shoot. In summary, our findings unveil an unexpected and pivotal role for ABA signaling in mitigating cellular damage induced by salinity stress and modulating sodium-induced responses in plant roots.

Impact of sodium hydroxide molarity on mechanical properties of fly ash–slag-based geopolymer concrete

The requirement of heat curing besides the poor workability of geopolymer concrete (GPC) is the main hurdle in its practical implementation. This study investigates the impact of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) concentration on the behaviour of fly ash slag blended ambient-cured GPC. The sodium hydroxide concentration was varied within the range from 8 molar to 14 molar to investigate its impact on fresh and hardened mechanical properties. The increase in sodium hydroxide concentration from 8 molar to 16 molar resulted in a continuous decrease in the workability of GPC. The target slump of more than 150 mm was achieved even for high sodium hydroxide concentration due to the presence of high-range water-reducing admixture. However, the increase in sodium hydroxide concentration positively influences the strength development of fly ash–slag-based ambient-cured GPC. The optimum 28 days compressive strength and splitting tensile strength of 44.3 MPa and 4.01 MPa, respectively, were achieved for the GPC with a sodium hydroxide concentration of 12 molar. The comparison of life-cycle assessment indicated that GPC is a sustainable alternative that offers a 49% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions compared to ordinary Portland cement-based concrete.

Simple Synthesis and Sodium Storage Analysis of Ultra‐High Nitrogen‐Doped Core‐Shell Mesoporous Carbon Nanospheres

AbstractThe development of easily synthesized high‐performance anode materials is crucial for the current energy storage (ES) field. Considering the potential of nitrogen‐doped core‐shell mesoporous carbon materials, a simple micelle‐induced high‐temperature pyrolysis method is employed to synthesize ultra‐high nitrogen‐doped (21.1 wt.%) core‐shell mesoporous carbon nanospheres (CYMCS). This material exhibits excellent volume expansion resistance, achieves a high reversible sodium storage capacity of up to 283 mAh g−1 at a current density of 0.1 A g−1, and maintains stable cycling performance for over 10000 cycles at a high current density of 5 A g−1. Moreover, previous research has provided limited insights into the specific mechanisms behind the low initial coulombic efficiency (ICE) observed in CYMCS and other related porous materials. To address this, the study not only delves into the electrochemical performance of CYMCS but also provides a comprehensive analysis of the formation mechanisms of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) and the electrolyte decomposition process, revealing the connections between these processes and their impact on ICE. Overall, this research not only offers new insights into the synthesis and performance optimization of CYMCS materials for sodium storage applications but also provides valuable guidance for the design of related carbon materials and strategies to improve ICE.

Unraveling the role of V modified CoO in a wide pH range Fenton-like process.

Building an effective heterogeneous Fenton catalyst over a broad pH range without the requirement for external energy input is still challenging. Herein, a vanadium-cobalt bimetallic catalyst (Co-V-8) are employed to extended a pH range of 3-9 by activating H2O2 as a Fenton-like catalyst. The Co-based Co-V-8 catalysts demonstrate high diclofenac sodium deterioration efficiency (98.2%) under both acidic and alkaline environments, and the kinetic reaction rate within 15min could reach 0.288 min-1. Crucially, density functional theory (DFT) calculations imply that the Co-V-8 owned a narrower band gap and a higher Fermi level, which beneficial for quickening the electron transfer process. Results showed that the catalyst modified by V could introduce abundant oxygen vacancies, promote the decomposition of H2O2 via V3+ and V4+, and enhance the conversion of Co3+ and Co2+, accelerating the formation of ·OH, ·OOH, ·O-2 and electron transfer process. Additionally, Co-V-8 promoted the utilization rate of H2O2 exceeding 90% and exhibited exceptional catalytic ability in cleaning actual pharmaceutical wastewater. This research offers a sustainable separable and purification technology for wastewater remediation.

Utilization of Red Mud and Biofertilizer for Peat Quality Improvement and Its Effect on the Growth and Production of Hybrid Corn

Peatlands are suboptimal lands that can be improved its quality to be used for agricultural cultivation. One of which is by using red mud and biofertilizer. Red mud, a by-product of bauxite processing, is widely available in West Kalimantan. Red mud has high pH, electrical conductivity, exchangeable sodium and base saturation. Biofertilizers are products containing selected microorganisms that can help enhance plant growth and yield. This study aims to examine the effects of red mud and biofertilizer applications on peat quality improvement and their impact on the growth and yield of hybrid corn. The experiment was arranged in a randomized block design (RBD) with two factors. The first factor was red mud with three dosage levels: control (l0), 6 tons/ha (l1), and 12 tons/ha (l2). The second factor was biofertilizer with three types: control (p0), Mycofer at 10 g/plant (p0), and Provibio at 10 ml/l (p2). The results showed that red mud at a dose of 12 tons/ha significantly affected soil pH, electrical conductivity, plant growth, and hybrid corn yield. The interaction of 12 tons/ha red mud and Provibio biofertilizer significantly increased sodium content and achieved the highest uptake of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and magnesium.

Experimental study on the geyser boiling phenomena and periodic correlation in high temperature sodium heat pipes

Experimental study on the geyser boiling phenomena and periodic correlation in high temperature sodium heat pipes

Proximate and mineral analysis of the mushroom biscuits

Mushroom is a rich source of nutrients and is widely consumed in Asian countries. Biscuits can be easily fortified with mushroom-rich flour to provide convenient foods to supplement protein in the diet. The research study evaluated the proximate and mineral analysis of the most widely used mushroom cultivated in Chattogram and developed mushroom biscuits. The mushroom varieties (Pleurotus ostreatus, Pleurotus sajor-caju, Agaricus bitorquis, and Ganoderma lucidum) were collected and dried, then taken to the laboratory for proximate and mineral analysis by following standard assay methods. Results demonstrated that the moisture, total solids, protein, fat, carbohydrate, fibre, ash, and energy content of different types of mushrooms ranged from 53.10 to 90.10%, 9.90 to 47.00%, 3.23 to 19.70%, 0.47 to 4.20%, 4.21 to13.02%, 0.51 to 3.90%, 1.28 to 6.18 and 34.78 to 172.37 (kcal/100 g), respectively. The highest sodium, phosphorus, and copper content value was found in Agaricus bitorquis. Magnesium content was found to be the highest in Pleurotus ostreatus. Potassium, calcium, chloride, iron, and zinc were the most elevated in Ganoderma lucidum. In mushroom biscuits, the moisture, ash, protein, fat, fibre, carbohydrate, and energy value ranged from 4.03 to 3.89%, 3.47 to 4.11%, 12.15 to 13.43%, 5.43 to 5.83%, 4.71 to 5.09%, 67.03 to 70.35% and 374.15 to 378.87 (Kcal/100 g), respectively. From the sensory and microbiological point of view, mushroom biscuits exhibited significant acceptability and stability. Mushrooms and mushroom-based products are valuable food sources for human needs, able to meet day-to-day nutritional requirements as a portion of food and help the country's economy

Prevalence, Management, and Associated Risk Factors of Urolithiasis Among Patients in a Tertiary Care Hospital, Bathinda

Background: Urolithiasis, a prevalent condition affecting the urinary system, is defined by the production of mineral crystals in the renal system or urinary tract. The purpose of this study is to assess the prevalence, demographic distribution, prognostic variables, and management findings among patients with urolithiasis at Adesh Hospital in Bathinda. Methods: A six-month prospective observational study was conducted in the Department of Urology . The study comprised 170 individuals with urolithiasis.Data were collected on socio-demographic details, clinical history, risk factors, laboratory and radiological findings, treatment regimens, and therapeutic outcomes. Statistical analyses were performed to identify patterns and associations. Results: Among 1432 patients screened, the prevalence of urolithiasis was 11.8%. The condition was most prevalent in the 38–48 age group (26.5%), with a slight female predominance (52.4%). Stone sizes of 4–8 mm were most common (61.8%), and the interpole calyx was identified as the predominant stone site (34.1%). Calcium stones were the most frequent composition (77.1%). Risk factors included inadequate hydration (62.9%), high sodium intake (79.4%), obesity (40.6%), alcohol use (53.5%), and frequent NSAID use. Hypertension (28.2%) and fatty liver (22.4%) were notable comorbidities, with a family history present in 8.2% of cases. Treatment: Medical management primarily involved urinary alkalinizers like potassium citrate and citric acid (98.2%) and alpha-blockers such as tamsulosin (40.0%). Antibiotics, including levofloxacin (41.8%) and cefixime with potassium clavulanate (32.9%), were frequently prescribed. Rabeprazole with domperidone (64.1%) was the most utilized proton pump inhibitor. Significant symptom improvement was observed post-treatment, particularly in dysuria, urinary retention, hematuria, and straining (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Urolithiasis is a significant health issue influenced by modifiable lifestyle factors and comorbidities. This study underscores the importance of early diagnosis, effective medical management, and patient education to address underlying risk factors. The findings provide valuable insights for improving clinical outcomes and guiding evidence-based treatment strategies for urolithiasis.

Novel compound heterozygous CYP17A1 mutations identified in a family with two siblings affected by 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase deficiency.

17α-Hydroxylase/17,20-lyase deficiency (17OHD) is a rare form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), caused by mutations in the CYP17A1 gene. It typically manifests clinically as variable degree of hypertension, hypokalemia, and disorders of sexual development (DSD), which can include abnormal sexual differentiation in males and sexual infantilism in females. Over 100 mutations in CYP17A1 have been identified, with most cases involving missense mutations or small deletions. This study examined the clinical features, biochemical profiles, and genetic background of two 46, XY siblings from the same family, both diagnosed with 17OHD-a scenario that is uncommonly seen in clinical practice. We performed a genetic analysis of the CYP17A1 gene in two generations of the family to confirm the diagnosis. Both patients are phenotypically female, presenting with hypertension, hypokalemia, primary amenorrhea, and absent secondary sexual characteristics. Genetic analysis revealed two novel compound heterozygous mutations in the CYP17A1 gene: R45WfsTer5 (a frameshift mutation) and L361P (a missense mutation). Neither variant is reported in the ClinVar database, and the frameshift mutation (R45WfsTer5) is newly identified. The discovery of these two novel CYP17A1 mutations expands the genetic spectrum of 17OHD and provides new insights into the genetic underpinnings of the disease. Personalized treatment plans are necessary, and the choice of glucocorticoids with stronger sodium retention effects may be required to manage hypertension and electrolyte imbalances in select patients.

Estimates and trends in death and disability from atrial fibrillation/atrial flutter due to high sodium intake, China, 1990 to 2019

ObjectiveThe effect of sodium intake on atrial fibrillation (AF)/atrial flutter (AFL), with respect to sex and age, has yet to be elucidated. This study aims to compare long-term trends in AF/AFL death and disability due to high sodium intake in China from 1990 to 2019.MethodsWe utilized data from the Global Burden of Disease study to assess the mortality and disability burden of AF/AFL attributable to high sodium intake (> 5 g/d) in China from 1990 to 2019. Overtime trends and average annual percentage change (AAPC) were analyzed with adjustments for age, sex, period, and cohorts.ResultsIn 2019, the number of AF/AFL deaths and disability-adjusted life years attributable to high sodium intake were 4209.944 (95% UI: [1250.690-8718.238]) and 235484.586 (95% UI: [89136.783-428566.694]), with males comprising 44.81% and 51.95% of cases, respectively. The age-standardized mortality rates (ASMRs) and age-standardized disability rates (ASDRs) of AF/AFL attributable to high sodium intake exhibited downward trends from 1990 to 2019 in China. The AAPC was − 0.221(95% CI: -0.321–0.121)and − 0.631(95% CI: -0.816–0.446) for AF/AFL, respectively. An upward trend was observed in ASMRs for AF and AFL, attributable to high sodium intake due to high salt intake at ages 30–34, 35–39, and 40–44. With an increase in age, the AAPC for ASMRs increased correspondingly, and the AAPC for ASDRs exhibited a decreasing trend.ConclusionsOur findings provide strong evidence that high sodium levels in China significantly affect standard ASMRs and ASDRs for AF and AFL. Notably, different patterns of change are identified across various age groups, emphasizing the pronounced effect of salt reduction on AF and AFL.

Characterization and identification of elemental sulphur, iron pyrite, mineral gypsum, phospho gypsum and marine gypsum using SEM-EDAX

India has 6.73 million ha of salt-affected soils, of which 3.77 million ha is sodic soil. Sodicity is a serious issue in agriculture, and it prevents to meet the properties of fertile soil. Sodicity alters its physical and chemical properties, including soil structure and hydraulic conductivity. High exchangeable sodium and pH decrease soil permeability, available water capacity and infiltration rates through swelling and dispersion of clays as well as slaking of soil aggregates. Gypsum is one of the sources used for sodic soil reclamation, and the cheaper and alternative source is marine gypsum which is recovered from salt pans during production of common salt in coastal region, particularly in Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. The recovery of by-product gypsum and marine gypsum together is substantial and is comparable with the production of mineral gypsum.The amendments generally used for sodic soil reclamation should be a source of sulphates such as elemental sulphur, iron pyrite, mineral gypsum, phospho gypsum and marine gypsum. Characterization of sources by SEM–EDAX is rapid and elementary. The elemental composition revealed by the spectra of the bentonite sulphur for weight percentage and atomic percentage of sulphur is quantified as 34.04% and 18.59%, respectively, in the ZAF matrix. In iron pyrite spectra the weight percentage and atomic percentage of sulphur are 4.89% and 2.31%,respectively, in the ZAF matrix, while in mineral gypsum, the calcium weight percentage is 10.14% and atomic percentage is 04.04% while sulphur weight percentage is 6.52%, atomic percentage is 3.50%. The calcium composition in phosphogypsum is weight percentage is 14.69%; Atomic percentage is 34%, and the sulphur composition in phosphogypsum is weight percentage 10.40%, atomic percentage 5.60%, whereas in marine gypsum the calcium (weight percentage 09.10%, atomic percentage 03.58%) and sulphur (weight percentage 06.28%, atomic percentage 03.09%) proportions dominate as like two other above-mentioned gypsums, the element which makes difference in the marine gypsum from others is sodium (Weight percentage 00.18%, atomic percentage 00.12%). This helps to confirm that marine gypsum is an economic and alternate source available for sodic soil reclamation.

Exploration of High and Low Molecular Weight Polyacrylic Acids and Sodium Polyacrylates as Potential Binder System for Use in Silicon Graphite Anodes

Exploration of High and Low Molecular Weight Polyacrylic Acids and Sodium Polyacrylates as Potential Binder System for Use in Silicon Graphite Anodes

Electrochemo-Mechanics insights of Sn foil anode in Sodium-Ion batteries.

The development of high-performance sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) is crucial to meeting the growing demand for low-cost, sustainable energy storage alternatives to lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, achieving stable cycling performance in SIBs is challenging, particularly with tin (Sn) foil anodes, which suffer from issues like sodium trapping and structural degradation due to significant volume changes during sodiation and desodiation. In this study, we investigate the electrochemo-mechanical behavior of Sn foil anodes, focusing on the mechanisms of sodium trapping and structural evolution that impair battery performance. We demonstrate that sodiation forms a porous coral-like structure in Sn, which, while increasing surface area, also contributes to severe volume expansion, crack formation, and diffusive sodium trapping. We further explore zinc (Zn)-doped Sn foils, revealing that Zn-rich phases create additional fast sodium diffusion channels, significantly reducing sodium retention and enhancing the anode's structural integrity. Based on these insights, we propose several improvement strategies, including electrolyte additives, optimized electrode architecture, microstructural defect engineering, and artificial solid-electrolyte interface (SEI) coatings, all aimed at enhancing cycle stability and performance. This work provides a comprehensive understanding of Sn-based anodes and offers practical pathways for advancing SIBs technology.

Street lighting maintenance management system based on fuzzy logic

PurposeThis research was carried out in response to the need to find new alternative ways of maintaining public lighting with high pressure sodium vapor lamps. The objective was to develop a public lighting maintenance management system based on fuzzy logic that guarantees maximum energy efficiency and is economically feasible.Design/methodology/approachA preliminary study was carried out on the complaints due to failures of public lighting for three years in the municipality of Camagüey, Cuba, determining the failure rate of each control and the time between failures, a statistical evaluation of the time between failures was carried out identifying that this variable responds to a Weibull distribution, the membership functions of the proposed four linguistic variables and the rule base for their fuzzy sets were created, obtaining as output linguistic variable the mass replacement and cleaning time.FindingsThe fuzzy logic maintenance model developed is effective in making better use of the useful life of high-pressure sodium vapor lamps, increasing the time between maintenance operations of mass lamp replacement and mass cleaning of luminaires up to 8 and 9 years, without compromising the required lighting levels and energy efficiency.Originality/valueThe literature contains very few references to the use of condition-based maintenance in this type of system, so a novel approach by a robust heuristic model of street lighting condition-based maintenance management driven by data is proposed, the model integrates through fuzzy logic all the factors that influence the progressive deterioration of these installations and maintenance actions that guarantee compliance with the established service quality standards, with the maximum energy efficiency that is economically justified.

Unveiling the role of mixing in [Fe(CN)6]4− defects and Na content for preparing NaxMn[Fe(CN)6]y · nH2O via microreactor

AbstractTaking advantage of strong mixing performance in oscillating feedback microreactor (OFM), the manganese hexacyanoferrates (NaxMn[Fe(CN)6]y · nH2O, MnHCFs) with low defects and high sodium content were controllably prepared. First, fluid mixing performance in OFM was investigated via dye‐tracer and Villermaux‐Dushman experiments, and the fluid mixing mechanism in OFM was investigated through CFD simulations. Then, MnHCFs were prepared using OFM at different flow rates, and the role of mixing in [Fe(CN)6]4− vacancies and sodium content during co‐precipitation synthesis of MnHCFs was discussed. The results indicate that an increase in flow rates can increase fluid chaos strength, enhancing the mass transfer process to match the extremely fast reaction rate of MnHCFs, thus preparing MnHCFs with high sodium content and low defects. Relevant electrochemical tests indicate that the MnHCF prepared at the largest throughput (180 mL/min) has the highest initial specific capacity (132 mAh/g at 15 mA/g), minimum electrochemical impedance, and fastest sodium ion transport rate.

Long-term excessive salt consumption alters villous and crypt morphology and the protein expression of uroguanylin, TRPV6 and PMCA1b in the rat small intestine.

Although long-term high dietary sodium consumption often aggravates hypertension and bone loss, sodium in the intestinal lumen has been known to promote absorption of nutrients and other ions, e.g., glucose and calcium. However, whether high-salt diet (HSD) altered mucosal morphology, villous cell turnover and calcium transporter expression remained elusive. Herein, rats were treated with HSD containing 8% wt/wt NaCl for up to 5 months. HSD rats exhibited a marked increase in sodium intake with high fecal and urinary sodium excretion, as compared to the control group treated with normal diet. Intestinal histomorphometry revealed increasing of crypt depth and villous height in 3- and 4-month HSD groups, respectively, consistent with larger mucosal-to-serosal amplification ratio that reflected an increased surface area for nutrient absorption. The signals of Ki-67-positive cells was enhanced in the crypts as visualized by multiphoton fluorescence microscopy, whereas the TUNEL-positive cells were decreased in the villi of HSD, suggesting greater crypt cell proliferation and a reduction of villous cell apoptosis. Confocal microscopy showed higher expression of TRPV6 protein in the villous tip of HSD, while PMCA1 expression was increased in villous tip and crypt areas. The percentage of cells with highly expressed uroguanylin-an endogenous intestinal natriuretic peptide-was significantly higher in HSD group. In conclusion, HSD profoundly changed the intestinal morphology and turnover of epithelial cell, increased the expression of calcium transporters and uroguanylin. Our findings reflect pathophysiological adaptations in the intestine, which might be another target organ for drug discovery against HSD-induced osteopathy in the future.

The impact of serum sodium variability on surgical patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage.

Currently, limited evidence exists on the impact of serum sodium variability in patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) who underwent surgical clipping. We aimed to perform a detailed examination of the relationship between sodium variability and mortality in these patients. We conducted a cohort study including adult patients with aneurysmal SAH who underwent surgical clipping at a university hospital. Propensity score matching (PSM) was used to match patients' baseline characteristics. We evaluated the association between serum sodium standard deviation and mortality. Net reclassification improvement was calculated to assess and compare the reclassification capacity of different models. Trends in serum sodium over time were detected using linear mixed-effects models. Of 563 aneurysmal SAH patients who underwent surgical clipping during the study period, the average age was 56.87 ± 10.81 years. The serum sodium standard deviation was 4.24 [2.65-5.82] mmol/L. Patients with high sodium variability had significantly higher odds of mortality (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 1.93, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.01 to 3.68; P = 0.045). PSM analysis showed similar results (aOR: 2.23, 95% CI: 1.10 to 4.99; P = 0.045). Additionally, an increase in serum sodium of more than 5 mmol/L was significantly associated with mortality (aOR: 3.46, 95% CI: 1.26 to 9.20; P = 0.016) in a linear dose-response pattern. High serum sodium variability and an increase in serum sodium of more than 5 mmol/L were independent predictive factors of mortality in aneurysmal SAH patients who underwent surgical clipping. Thus, even mild changes in sodium levels warrant close attention.

Peroxiredoxin 5 Acts as a Negative Regulator of the Sodium-Chloride Cotransporter Involved in Alleviating Angiotensin II-Induced Hypertension.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) and hypertension are interconnected, worsening each other. Recent studies have shown that the reduction of peroxiredoxin 5 (Prdx5) accelerates kidney fibrosis, a hallmark of CKD. This study aims to observe whether the deficiency of Prdx5 also contributes to the worsening of CKD-related hypertension. Angiotensin II (Ang II, 1000 ng/kg/day) was infused into Prdx5 wild-type (WT) and Prdx5 knock out (KO) mice (each group; n = 6). The blood pressure was higher in the Ang-II-infused Prdx5 KO mice than in the WT mice. Ang-II-induced ROS/RNS generation and fibrotic marker expressions were also higher in the Prdx5 KO mice. In particular, the expression of the sodium-chloride cotransporter (NCC), an ion transport protein important for sodium retention in the distal convoluted tubule, and the NCC's phosphorylation at Thr53 were increased in the kidney of Ang-II-infused Prdx5 KO. The activity of an WNK4-SPAK/OSR1, upstream activator of the NCC, was also increased. In 209/mDCT cells, the knockdown of Prdx5 (siPrdx5) increased the activity of Ang-II-mediated WNK4-SPAK/OSR1-NCC signaling and Ang-II-mediated ROS generation, whereas Prdx5 overexpression showed opposite results. In conclusion, Prdx5 negatively regulates the WNK4-SPAK/OSR1-NCC signaling axis, indicating its potential as a candidate for antihypertensive drug development through NCC regulation.

The burden of chronic kidney disease attributable to high sodium intake: a longitudinal study in 1990-2019 in China.

Elevated sodium consumption is associated with increased risk for chronic kidney disease (CKD) and data for this disease burden attributable to high sodium intake in China from 1990 to 2019 are scarce in China. Our study aims to estimate and present the national burden of CKD attributable to high sodium intake, as well as its profile. The regional disease burden data from the China Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment (CFSA) from 1990 to 2019 were compiled based on the methodology of GBD 2019. CKD burden [deaths and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs)] was quantified according to population group (age, gender) and regions categories (province, SDI). The estimated annual percentage change (EAPC) in age-standardized mortality rate (ASMR) and age-standardized DALYs rate (ASDR) were calculated to describe long-term trends. Totally, the number of deaths of CKD attributable to high sodium intake reached 95,000, with DALYs amounting to 2.59 million person-years in 2019, while the trends of ASMR (EAPC: -0.31, 95%CI: -0.46, -0.17%) and ASDR (-0.33, 95%CI: -0.48, -0.18%) were down during the observation period. The age-specific numbers and rates of deaths, as well as DALYs increase with age are higher in males than in females. Significant disparities in CKD burden attributable to high sodium intake were observed across provinces and SDI regions. In both 1990 and 2019, the number of deaths and DALYs were higher in middle SDI regions, while low-middle SDI regions had highest ASMR and ASDR. The EAPC of ASDR was found to be significantly negatively correlated with the 1990 ASDR (ρ = -0.393, p = 0.024), and the EAPC of ASMR and ASDR were also significantly negatively correlated with the 2019 SDI (ASMR:ρ = -0.571, p < 0.001; ASDR:ρ = -0.368, p = 0.035). High sodium intake accounted for a sizeable burden of disease from 1990 to 2019 in China, also presents sexual and geographic variations. Despite a slight decreasing trend exists, the absolute number increased as much as twofold, particularly among males and seniors. Targeting to reduce sodium intake remains a priority, and progress requires systematic monitoring and evaluation, particularly in middle SDI regions that are experiencing rising trends and low-middle SDI regions being susceptible to approaches.

Sodium, the Vascular Endothelium, and Hypertension: A Narrative Review of Literature.

The vascular endothelium and its endothelial glycocalyx contribute to the protection of the endothelial cells from exposure to high levels of sodium and help these structures maintain normal function by regulating vascular permeability due to its buffering effect. The endothelial glycocalyx has negative surface charges that bind sodium and limit sodium entry into cells and the interstitial space. High sodium levels can disrupt this barrier and allow the movement of sodium into cells and extravascular fluid. This can generate reactive oxygen species that inhibit nitric oxide production. This leads to vasospasm and increases intravascular pressures. Overtime vascular remodeling occurs, and this changes the anatomy of blood vessels, their intrinsic stiffness, and their response to vasodilators and results in hypertension. Patients with increased salt sensitivity are potentially at more risk for this sequence of events. Studies on the degradation of the glycocalyx provide insight into the pathogenesis of clinical disorders with vascular involvement, but there is limited information available in the context of higher concentrations of sodium. Data on higher intake of sodium and the imbalance between nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species have been obtained in experimental studies and provide insights into possible outcomes in humans. The current western diet with sodium intake above recommended levels has led to the assessment of sodium sensitivity, which has been used in different populations and could become a practical tool to evaluate patients. This would potentially allow more focused recommendations regarding salt intake. This review will consider the structure of the vascular endothelium, its components, the effect of sodium on it, and the use of the salt blood test mini.