High School Athletic Directors Research Articles

Unveiling Gaps in High School Strength and Conditioning: CSCS Certification, Coaching Leadership, and Facilities.

Judge, LW, Marsh, JP, Petersen, JC, Pearson, D, and Bellar, D. Unveiling gaps in high school strength and conditioning: CSCS certification, coaching leadership and facilities. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2024-The aim of this study was to examine the prevalence of Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist (CSCS) and/or dedicated strength coaches overseeing strength and conditioning facilities (SCFs) at the high school level in a Southwestern state. An online survey, comprising 72 items based on a validated instrument, collected data on SCFs from high school athletic directors statewide. A total of 245 surveys were completed representing a 17.5% response rate. Descriptive, Pearson correlation, chi-square, and ANOVA analyses were conducted with an a priori alpha level of p < 0.05 established. The results revealed that only 9.4% of SCF supervisors held CSCS certification, 27.8% lacked certification, and 62.9% did not have a dedicated strength coach overseeing the SCF. Facilities led by CSCS coaches had several areas of greater equipment resources, including bench press stations (F [2, 244] = 5.143, p = 0.006), squat stations (F [2, 244] = 3.570, p = 0.030), and power clean stations (F [2, 244] = 4.573, p = 0.011). This study highlights the importance of prioritizing safety considerations and meeting the developmental needs of high school athletes by addressing the absence of CSCS certifications and dedicated strength coaches overseeing SCFs. The scarcity of CSCS-credentialed coaches in high schools is troubling, considering adolescent athletes' developmental needs and recently enacted National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I safety standards for strength and conditioning coaches.

Examining How High School Athletic Directors Leverage Communication With Key Stakeholder Groups to Inform Performance Appraisals of Head Coaches

To ensure that head coaches are effective in leading athletic programs, interscholastic athletic directors engage in a performance appraisal process that reviews coaching efforts. Given the demands of the athletic director role, these leaders are reliant on stakeholders to provide insight that informs the coaching evaluation. Therefore, using the tenets of stakeholder theory, the purpose of this study was to analyze the role that stakeholder feedback plays as athletic directors develop the full picture of coaching performance during an evaluation. Participants (N = 25) featured high school athletic directors represented across school classification (i.e., 1A, 2A, 3A, and 4A) and school type (i.e., public and private). Through semistructured interviews and a subsequent thematic analysis, saturation was achieved at this sample size. Two main themes (i.e., main stakeholder groups and leveraging stakeholder feedback) emerged and demonstrate how key stakeholders should be considered as important sources of information guiding interscholastic athletic directors when leading coaching evaluations.

The Management of Spectators Through the Lens of High School Athletic Directors

The purpose of this study is to explore the perceptions of athletic directors at high school sporting events during the COVID-19 pandemic. Four hundred twelve (412) high school athletic directors were surveyed and 112 responded. Participants responded to demographic items, and a qualitative, open-ended prompt to elicit detailed experiences, emotional responses, and perceptions of sporting events during the COVID-19 pandemic. Through a grounded theory approach, the following themes emerged: a strong desire for in-person attendance at sporting events, community responses that challenged health and safety of spectators and athletes, and the necessity for COVID-19 related changes such as digital ticketing virtual spectating opportunities. The study illuminates the necessity for flexibility and innovation during a crisis, in ways that are relevant to school leaders entrusted to foster a positive environment at athletic events. Some level of demand for virtual spectating experiences is likely to continue or increase in the future for post-pandemic sporting events. Further research can identify exemplary practices, and those exemplars can serve as a model for other schools and athletic directors.

Stereotype Threat and Interscholastic Athletic Leadership

Women have historically been underrepresented in positions of power within athletic administration. Stereotype threat, or the realization that there is a possibility that one is being judged as confirming or being reduced to a stereotype, can negatively impact the recruitment and retention of woman leaders in sport. This study developed and validated a new scale, the Gender Stereotype Threat in Athletic Administration, and elicited responses from high school athletic directors in two U.S. states. Using multiple analysis of variance, correlation analysis, and structure equation modeling, five hypotheses were tested and supported based on the respondents’ feelings of group identification, belonging uncertainty, extra pressure to succeed, and group reputation threat. The present work extends the findings on stereotype threat in the sport leadership domain and provides a useful instrument to study this phenomenon in future research.

Mental health training for high school coaches and athletic directors: Community-based participatory research to Coach Beyond

Training to improve high school sport coaches’ and athletic directors’ knowledge, skills, and competencies to address and respond to rising mental health concerns is more important than ever. High school student-athletes are at increased risk for mental health concerns, given the pressures of balancing sport, school, and other responsibilities. This paper describes a community-based participatory research (CBPR) study that guided two years of public impact and social change efforts to improve coach education and training in one large Midwestern state in the United States. Our collective goal was to empower coaches and athletic directors to coach “beyond the Xs and Os.” Using a CBPR framework, we describe the decision-making process that led to the co-development and implementation of a mental health training program piloted with 147 high school coaches and athletic directors. We also describe intermediate outcomes associated with our collective change efforts demonstrating the value of using a CBPR approach. Our “Coach Beyond” processes and outputs showcase how CBPR can lead to transformative action and social change to reorient sport as a context focused on the holistic health, wellness, and development of student-athletes.

Athletic Burnout in High School Students: A Social Perspective

An examination of athlete burnout through a social perspective, determining if athlete burnout levels are correlated to levels of social support and social resources in high school student-athletes. According to this framework, high school athletes are likely to experience burnout if they have a low social support network and a lack of autonomy. A sample of 52 female and male high school-aged athletes from New Jersey participated in this study. The Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ) and Sport Climate Questionnaire (SCQ) and personal interviews were used in this study. The quantitative data was analyzed using Pearson’s r Correlation Calculator. The quantitative results indicated that there was a negative correlation between social support and the development of athlete burnout among high school student-athletes (r=-.6716), which was further triangulated with the qualitative interview results. These findings revealed that increased social support has the ability to mitigate the severity of athlete burnout; thus to decrease the prevalence of burnout in high school athletes, coaches and athletic directors must enhance their athlete's social support network and resources.

Understanding Legal Duties: Are High School Athletic Directors Properly Prepared?

The legal duties of high school athletic directors are an under-researched area of sport law. Millions of dollars are paid out annually due to the negligence of high school athletic program administrators, justifying a deep dive into further understanding high school athletic director legal awareness. Utilizing research related to an established 14 legal duties for high school athletics, the authors created a survey to contribute to the limited existing research related to high school athletic director legal awareness.&#x0D; The survey went to a geographically balanced sample of states and the athletic directors within these states. A total of 349 responses were captured. A Rasch analysis identified the most challenging duties for high school athletic directors to manage were areas such as keeping practice plans on file and advising students of warning labels on equipment. Areas that high school athletic directors were better equipped to manage were transportation of students to practice and competition, and ensuring equipment meets industry standards.&#x0D; Multiple regression analysis revealed that smaller schools are most challenged in legal duty awareness due to limited resources (e.g., financial and personnel). Research should continue to build in this area by evaluating other variables that may impact the ability to comply and explanations for the level of awareness of directors.

Evaluating the Use of Communication and Technology by High School Athletic Directors to Navigate the COVID-19 Pandemic

High school athletics represents a major segment of the sport industry and is regarded as an important component in youth development in the United States. With the rise of the COVID-19 pandemic, challenges emerged that forced athletic directors to provide essential information to key stakeholders, keep people safe, and identify new ways to bring events to fans. To further understand these experiences, this commentary aimed to evaluate the use of communication and technology by high school athletic directors to address challenges, develop new strategies, adapt to day-to-day changes, and manage the long-term impacts of COVID-19 on interscholastic athletics. Through in-depth interviews with athletic directors, responses demonstrated how enhanced communication with key stakeholders (i.e., athletic programs and fellow athletic directors) and a reliance on technologies (i.e., digital ticketing and online live streaming) helped these leaders successfully navigate the pandemic and develop new strategies that will persist into the future.

Gender nonbinary athletes and sport participation: Perspectives of high school coaches and athletic directors

ABSTRACT Students who identify as gender nonbinary may be victimized by peers as well as school teachers, staff, and administration [Perez, E. R., Schanding Jr, G. T., & Dao, T. K. (2013). Educators’ perceptions in addressing bullying of LGBTQ/gender nonconforming youth. Journal of School Violence, 12(1), 64–79.]. We gained an understanding of how coaches and athletic directors perceive gender nonbinary athletes and their sports team participation by recruiting a sample of NJ high school coaches and athletic directors to complete an online survey. Participants read a hypothetical vignette about an athlete who identifies as gender nonbinary. Half read a vignette about that athlete who wants to join their team and half read about an athlete joining the opposing team. Participants then rated their agreement to statements about the athlete’s sport participation. Findings are relevant, as many coaches’ and athletic directors’ perspectives do not align with current policies, which may have implications for the education and training of high school teachers and staff, and the opportunities for gender nonbinary high school athletes.

Reported COVID-19 Incidence in Indoor Winter Sports Among US High-School Athletes.

To evaluate the association between COVID-19 incidence among high-school athletes participating in different indoor winter sports and attending schools with in-person versus virtual instructional delivery. Cross-sectional survey. US high schools. High-school athletic directors. Indoor winter sports, school instructional delivery method, and state COVID-19 incidence. Surveys were distributed to high-school athletic directors throughout the United States regarding sport reinitiation and COVID-19 cases in winter 2020 to 2021. Separate mixed effects Poisson regression models were developed to evaluate the associations between reported COVID-19 incidence and (1) different sports and (2) school instructional delivery method, while adjusting for the background, state COVID-19 incidence. Four hundred thirty schools had restarted fall sports, representing 31 274 athletes on 1404 teams from 14 states. One thousand four hundred sixty cases of COVID-19 were reported, representing a case rate of 4668 cases per 100 000 athletes and an incidence rate of 58.7 cases per 100 000 player-days. Reported COVID-19 incidence was greatest among girls' hockey (82.1 cases per 100 000 player-days (95% CI, 56.8-115) and boys' hockey [76.7 (61.8-94.2)] and lowest among swimming [39.0 (31.1-48.2)] and gymnastics [28.5 (13.1-54.2)]. No difference in reported COVID-19 incidence was identified among athletes attending schools with virtual versus in-person instruction [incidence rate ratio = 0.86 (0.52-1.4)]. In this nationwide survey of US high-school athletic directors regarding indoor winter sports, reported COVID-19 incidence was lower in noncontact sports but unrelated to school instructional delivery method. This information may help guide decision-making regarding high-school sport participation during the COVID-19 pandemic.

COVID-19 Planning in United States Adolescent Sports: A Survey of 1880 Organizations Representing More Than 500 000 Youth Athletes.

High schools and youth sport organizations that restarted participation in the fall of 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic relied on information sources to develop risk-mitigation procedures. To compare the risk-mitigation procedures and information sources used by high school athletic departments and youth sport organizations. Cross-sectional study. Surveys of high school and youth sport organization programs from across the United States. A total of 1296 high schools and 584 youth sport organizations, representing 519 241 adolescent athletes, responded to the surveys. Surveys regarding restarting sport, COVID-19 cases, risk-reduction procedures, and the information sources used to develop risk-reduction plans in the fall of 2020 were distributed to high school athletic directors and youth sport directors throughout the United States. The proportions of high schools and youth sport organizations using different risk-reduction procedures and information sources were compared using the χ2 test. High schools used more risk-reduction procedures than did youth sport organizations (high schools = 7.1 ± 2.1 versus youth sport organizations = 6.3 ± 2.4; P < .001) and were more likely than youth sport organizations to use symptom monitoring (high schools = 93% versus youth sport organizations = 85%, χ2 = 26.3; P < .001), temperature checks on site (66% versus 49%, χ2 = 53.4; P < .001), face masks for athletes during play (37% versus 23%, χ2 = 38.1; P < .001) and when off the field (81% versus 71%, χ2 = 26.1; P < .001), social distancing for staff (81% versus 68%, χ2 = 43.3; P < .001) and athletes off the field (83% versus 68%, χ2 = 57.6; P < .001), and increased facility disinfection (92% versus 70%, χ2 = 165.0; P < .001). Youth sport organizations relied more on information from sport national governing bodies than did high schools (youth sport organizations = 52% versus high schools = 10%, χ2 = 411.0; P < .001), whereas high schools were more likely to use information from sources such as the National Athletic Trainers' Association (high schools = 20% versus youth sport organizations = 6%, χ2 = 55.20; P < .001) and the National Federation of State High School Associations (high schools = 72% versus youth sport organizations = 15%, χ2 = 553.00; P < .001) for determining risk-reduction strategies. High schools and youth sport organizations reported using a broad range of risk-reduction procedures, but the average number was higher among high schools than youth sport organizations. Use of information from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and local health authorities was high overall, but use of information from professional health care organizations was low. Professional health care organizations should consider using additional measures to improve information uptake among stakeholders in youth sports.

Spinal Cord Injury Policy: Perceived Factors Influencing Adoption From High School Athletic Directors

Spinal Cord Injury Policy: Perceived Factors Influencing Adoption From High School Athletic Directors

Factors Affecting Leaders’ Adoption of Innovation:

This study's focus is to determine why some leaders adopt an innovation, while others do not, through the case of high school athletic directors' digital ticket adoption. We explore the process through which sport managers evaluate an innovation as the best course of action. The purpose of this study was to identify critical factors influencing high school athletic directors' decisions to adopt digital ticketing as the best strategy for securing revenue and serving their event attendees. High school athletic directors (N = 628) completed an online survey measuring the effects that leaders' prior conditions and perceived characteristics of the innovation (i.e., independent variables) have on their decision to adopt or reject the technology (i.e., dependent variable). From a theoretical perspective, we extend the conceptual model proposed by Rogers' Diffusion of Innovation Theory, including two constructs specific to the situation considered (i.e., trust and cost). From a managerial standpoint, there appears to be a need to educate athletic directors on the free digital ticketing options available and its ease-of-use. Future research should explore the athletic directors' decision-making process across a more extensive timeline through a longitudinal study.

Unpacking educational athletics: An exploratory study of high school athletic directors' critical praxis

ObjectivesGiven the salience and popularity of interscholastic athletics, whether high school sport serves as a site for inclusive, empowering experiences for youth participants has significant implications. This study examined how U.S. high school athletic directors think about and navigate (i.e., praxis) broader social issues in their work with student-athletes and coaches to promote youth development. DesignA cultural praxis framework informed qualitative study design consisting of semi-structured interviews with 16 athletic directors from various high school community contexts within one Midwestern state. MethodReflexive thematic analysis of interviews with high school athletic directors employed a semantic (explicit, surface level) and latent (implicit, interpretative) focus (Braun & Clarke, 2019; Braun, Clarke, & Weate, 2016). ResultsSemantic analyses indicated that athletic directors used various strategies to navigate matters that arose in their work with student-athletes and coaches. Relevant issues were contextually situated and emerged as (in)congruent with their context. Latent analyses shed light on assumptions that ADs made about student-athlete development and demonstrated that sport leaders' critical praxis varied along a continuum. ConclusionFuture research is needed to more systematically examine how athletic directors engage in a (critical) praxis; student-athletes’ perspectives on the relevance of certain social issues and efficacy of administrators' praxis; and, developmental initiatives to empower youth and adult leaders in athletics.

High School Athletic Directors Report Poor Compliance With Concussion Reporting and Medical Clearance in Massachusetts

PurposeTo assess statewide prevalence of medical access, concussion reporting, and concussion clearance rates of high school athletic departments in Massachusetts after the implementation of state-wide concussion legislation.MethodsA random sample of 50 athletic directors (ADs) from Massachusetts high schools with an enrollment of >150 students was selected. A 10-minute electronic survey about access to athletic trainers and physicians, and concussion reporting and clearance practices was administered. Responses were anonymous.ResultsThe response rate was 80% (n = 40). In total, 90% of respondents were male. Median age and experience of respondents was 52 years old and 10 years, respectively. The median school size was 637 students, represented from all Massachusetts geographic athletic districts. ADs disclosed that on average, 12% (95% confidence interval 7%-20%) of concussions go unreported at their schools. In total, 16% of respondents reported that at least 1 in 4 of concussed athletes at their school returned to play without appropriate medical clearance, and 5% of ADs reported that not all of their coaches had undergone any form of concussion training. Overall, 55% of high schools do not have access to a full-time athletic trainer and 50% do not have a team physician; 20% have affiliations with an orthopaedic surgeon and 8% with a neurologist.ConclusionsDespite new regulations in Massachusetts, high school ADs report concussion reporting and clearance that are less than 100%. Less than one half of all Massachusetts high schools report access to a full-time athletic trainer or formal relationship with a school physician.Clinical RelevanceInvestigating compliance with Massachusetts school athletics safety regulations could help identify a need for reform of policies designed to help schools keep student athletes safer in situations where a concussion may have occurred.

Examining the role of high school athletic directors in promoting leadership development in high school student-athletes

ABSTRACTLeadership training is a valuable but underutilized process for high school student-athletes to experience. Athletic directors represent a unique opportunity to foster environments of leadership development in high schools. The purpose of the current study was to examine high school athletic directors’ approaches to leadership development, and discuss the practical application of leadership programming. Interviews with nine athletic directors supported the value of sport as context for learning life skills, including leadership. Leadership development strategies included captain roundtables, provision of resources, and connecting networks of coaches. Differences existed across schools in leadership development prioritization and programming, indicating a lack of standardized programming between schools. The authors concluded that leadership is an essential component of high school athletics, and that it is pivotal to improve the delivery of leadership training through athletic directors. Further research on the topic is required to clarify best practice principles, and to evaluate athletic director programming.

Emotional Intelligence, Job Satisfaction, Emotional Exhaustion, and Subjective Well-Being in High School Athletic Directors.

Developing subjective well-being among educational leaders is beneficial for both leaders themselves and students. Evidence has suggested that emotional intelligence has implications for the mental and physical well-being of individuals in leadership positions. This relationship has not, however, been extensively investigated among school administrators, particularly athletic directors, who can influence the lives of student-athletes. Thus, this study sought to examine the relationships among emotional intelligence, job satisfaction, emotional exhaustion, and subjective well-being in high school athletic directors. Participants included 394 U.S. high school athletic directors who completed questionnaires relating to emotional intelligence, job satisfaction, emotional exhaustion, and subjective well-being. The results revealed positive associations between emotional intelligence and subjective well-being and also demonstrated that both job satisfaction and emotional exhaustion mediated the emotional intelligence-subjective well-being relationship. The results highlight the role of emotional intelligence in athletic directors' subjective well-being and suggest that athletic directors should take measures to increase their emotional intelligence through professional learning opportunities and school support structures.

Emotional intelligence, servant leadership, and development goal orientation in athletic directors

Scholars and policy makers have long considered sport as a vehicle for promoting young athletes’ well-being, educational experience, and citizenship skills. Athletic directors can play a significant role in this process by establishing organizational goals that can foster the development of young athletes and also by ensuring that other personnel abide by these goals. However, little is known about methods athletic directors can use to focus on such development goals in the midst of the current winning-at-all-costs culture surrounding sports. Thus, the purpose of this study is to examine the relationships between emotional intelligence, servant leadership, and development goal orientation among high school athletic directors. A total of 445 athletic directors located in 48 states in the United States completed an online survey. The results indicated that emotional intelligence is positively associated with servant leadership, which in turn is positively associated with development goal orientation. The mediation analysis also revealed that servant leadership fully mediates the relationship between emotional intelligence and development goal orientation among athletic directors. The findings of this research assist in understanding how sports governing bodies can educate athletic directors to initiate development-oriented reform of the winning-at-all-costs culture in sports.

Burnout in High School Athletic Directors: A Self-Determination Perspective

Using the theoretical lens of self-determination theory, we examined correlates of burnout among high school athletic directors (N = 477, M = 45.8 years of age). Structural equation modeling of data from this cross-sectional study indicated that autonomy support from supervisors was positively associated with satisfaction of the three psychological needs (i.e., autonomy, competence, relatedness), whereas controlling behavior from supervisors was negatively correlated with psychological needs satisfaction. Competence was positively correlated with self-determination (autonomy and relatedness were not), which in turn was strongly associated with three dimensions of burnout.

The Preparticipation Physical Evaluation

To evaluate current preparticipation physical evaluation (PPE) clinical practice behaviors. Telephone and Web-based survey study with attention to utilization of the Fourth Edition PPE Monograph. We contacted the Washington State American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP) chapters, all Washington State high school athletic directors (ADs), and every state high school athletic association. Data collection and analysis regarding clinical practice. Awareness and utilization of the Fourth Edition PPE Monograph. The response rate was 72% (559/776) from the AAP, 56% (554/990) from the AAFP, 75% (317/424) from the ADs, and 100% (50/50) from the state athletic associations. Few physicians (37%) and ADs (6%) reported an awareness of the PPE Monograph. Knowledge of the Monograph did not vary by physician type, practice/school location, or experience (P > 0.05). Reported obstacles to the delivery of the PPE included time with patient (56%) and the lack of a standard form (52%). Physician awareness of the Monograph reduced the perception of obstacles (P < 0.01). Athletic directors reported financial limitations of the family as the primary obstacle (62%). Adoption of a single statewide PPE form was well supported (96% of physicians and 67% of ADs). Nationally, only 46% of state athletic associations mandate a single form, and only 16% use a form consistent with the Fourth Edition PPE Monograph. The medical community is largely unaware of national screening guidelines. New directions for education and policy are necessary to improve this implementation gap.