High-resolution X-ray Computed Tomography Scans Research Articles

Resolution Enhancement by Variable Zoom Trajectory in X-Ray Computed Tomography

Flat objects like electronic boards are challenging samples for high-resolution X-ray computed tomography scanning because their largest dimension significantly limits the magnification using circular trajectory scans. One way to improve spatial resolution for such samples is to utilize variable zoom trajectory. During variable zoom trajectory scanning, the source-to-object distance changes during the 360° rotation to maximize the magnification in the projections. Here, we propose an automatic variable zoom trajectory generation algorithm for arbitrary object and region of interest (ROI). We analyze how such a trajectory can enhance resolution in different cases and how isotropic is the resolution in the reconstructed volume. We demonstrate that the resolution can be improved without destroying the sample. However, the improvement is manifested mainly in directions in which we achieved the highest magnification in the projection.

Evidence for an evo-devo-derived hypothesis on three-dimensional flower shape modularity in a tropical orchid clade.

Covarying suites of phenotypic traits, or modules, are increasingly recognized to promote morphological evolution. However, information on how modularity influences flower diversity is rare and lacking for Orchidaceae. Here, we combine high-resolution X-ray computed tomography scanning with three-dimensional geometric morphometrics and phylogenetic comparative methods to test various hypotheses about three-dimensional patterns of flower evolutionary modularity in Malagasy Bulbophyllum orchids and examine rates and modes of module evolution. Based on the four evolutionary modules identified (i.e., sepals, lateral petals, labellum + column-foot, and column-part), our data support the hypothesis that both genetic-developmental and functional adaptive factors shaped evolutionary flower trait covariation in these tropical orchids. In line with "evo-devo" studies, we also find that the labellum evolved independently from the rest of the petal whorl. Finally, we show that modules evolved with different rates, and either in a neutral fashion (only column-part) or under selective constraints, as likely imposed by pollinators. Overall, this study supports current views that modular units can enhance the range and rate of morphological evolution.

Process-induced failure mode transition of compression molded discontinuous carbon fiber composites: From coupon to component level

Discontinuous carbon fiber composites have been reported to be damage tolerant materials with insensitivity to notches and defects. Meso-scale damage mechanisms and crack arresting are responsible for high apparent fracture toughness and pseudo-ductility. This work studies the effect of manufacturing and structure formation on the mechanical behavior of stochastic carbon fiber sheet molding compounds based on thermosetting prepreg platelets with a fiber length of 50 mm. The process–structure–property–performance relationship is analyzed by non-destructive characterization and mechanical bending tests on the component level. Model components of various preform and stack placement scenarios were compression molded to investigate different flow conditions, weld lines and artificially introduced defects. The experimental findings revealed a process-induced failure mode transition from pseudo-ductile to brittle failure behavior. Low-flow scenarios showed a highly non-linear response with large deflection values and high energy absorption. Higher in-mold material flow and weld lines caused brittle failure at significantly lower deflections with a considerable reduction of energy absorbing capacity. Increased material flow also reduced component stiffness and maximum load values. Weld lines exhibited major strength reduction compared to the pristine material configuration. Full-scale and high-resolution X-ray computed tomography scans revealed differences in local fiber orientation state, increased levels of fiber waviness and porosity, as well as asymmetric distribution of defects.

Going submicron in the precise analysis of soil structure: A FIB-SEM imaging study at nanoscale

Soil structure is defined by many physical properties and functions. If detailed information about the structure is known, a number of modelling techniques can be used to perform simulations to assess the physical properties of soil and evaluate them at different scales that cannot be measured otherwise or to predict changes due to variation in boundary conditions. With the widespread accessibility of X-ray computed tomography (XCT), it is possible to describe soil structure at µm scale. However, it is now evident that such characterization is not enough to describe all the necessary processes or properties of soils since detailed information about the soil structure at the nano-scale is still lacking. This paper presents the initial results of the nanostructure characterization of soils using focused ion beam plus scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM) imaging technique. We prepared two ~50 × 50 µm2 FIB milled and polished surfaces, each for Retisol and Chernozem soil aggregates. In addition to the FIB-SEM imaging with a resolution of up to 4 nm, we performed regular SEM surface imaging and high-resolution XCT scanning with a resolution of 1.01 µm. The images obtained using the three approaches showed their varying capabilities of distinguishing structural features at different scales. The FIB-SEM images were useful in the characterization of pore size distributions and we observed pore inscribed radii ranging from 2.5 nm to ~1 µm. We also observed three general types of nanoporosity: one is between the mineral grains and the organomineral assemblages, another within the organic matter and then within the minerals. We highlighted all the advantages and shortcomings of the FIB-SEM imaging and proposed practical solutions to addressing the disadvantages as well; In addition, future directions for research using FIB-SEM to improve the characterization of soil structure at the nano-scale were outlined.

XCT inspection in bonded aircraft repairs for composites

As bonded composite repairs are gaining importance for modern civil aircraft, it is necessary to investigate such repairs in detail under relevant environmental conditions. In this work, X-ray computed tomography (XCT) was performed on bonded repairs for carbon fiber (CF) reinforced epoxy matrix composites before and after cyclic conditioning between dry/cold and hot/wet conditions. In detail, high resolution XCT scans in absorption contrast (AC) mode as well as Talbot-Lau grating interferometer (TLGI)-XCT scans to obtain additional differential phase contrast (DPC) and dark-field contrast (DFC) modalities were performed. The repair bonds' constituents could be identified by the high resolution XCT scans. Additional information about fiber alignment, at least of the fiber bundles, could be extracted from the TLGI-XCT scans. In order to gain detailed information on certain specimen features, specimen dimensions were reduced for additional high resolution XCT scans.

Functional Implications of Ubiquitous Semicircular Canal Non-Orthogonality in Mammals

The ‘canonical model’ of semicircular canal orientation in mammals assumes that 1) the three ipsilateral canals of an inner ear exist in orthogonal planes (i.e., orthogonality), 2) corresponding left and right canal pairs have equivalent angles (i.e., angle symmetry), and 3) contralateral synergistic canals occupy parallel planes (i.e., coplanarity). However, descriptions of vestibular anatomy that quantify semicircular canal orientation in single species often diverge substantially from this model. Data for primates further suggest that semicircular canal orthogonality varies predictably with the angular head velocities encountered in locomotion. These observations raise the possibility that orthogonality, symmetry, and coplanarity are misleading descriptors of semicircular canal orientation in mammals, and that deviations from these norms could have significant functional consequences. Here we critically assess the canonical model of semicircular canal orientation using high-resolution X-ray computed tomography scans of 39 mammal species. We find that substantial deviations from orthogonality, angle symmetry, and coplanarity are the rule for the mammals in our comparative sample. Furthermore, the degree to which the semicircular canals of a given species deviate from orthogonality is negatively correlated with estimated vestibular sensitivity. We conclude that the available comparative morphometric data do not support the canonical model and that its overemphasis as a heuristic generalization obscures a large amount of functionally relevant variation in semicircular canal orientation between species.

Development of Cortical Bone Geometry in the Human Femoral and Tibial Diaphysis

Ontogenetic growth processes in human long bones are key elements, determining the variability of adult bone structure. This study seeks to identify and describe the interaction between ontogenetic growth periods and changes in femoral and tibial diaphyseal shape. Femora and tibiae (n = 46) ranging developmentally from neonate to skeletally mature were obtained from the Norris Farms No. 36 archeological skeletal series. High-resolution X-ray computed tomography scans were collected. Whole-diaphysis cortical bone drift patterns and relative bone envelope modeling activity across ages were assessed in five cross-sections per bone (total bone length: 20%, 35%, 50%, 65%, and 80%) by measuring the distance from the section centroid to the endosteal and periosteal margins in eight sectors using ImageJ. Pearson correlations were performed to document and interpret the relationship between the cross-sectional shape (Imax /Imin ), total subperiosteal area, cortical area, and medullary cavity area for each slice location and age for both the femur and the tibia. Differences in cross-sectional shape between age groups at each cross-sectional position were assessed using nonparametric Mann-Whitney U tests. The data reveal that the femoral and tibial midshaft shape are relatively conserved throughout growth; yet, conversely, the proximal and distal femoral diaphysis and proximal tibial diaphysis appear more sensitive to developmentally induced changes in mechanical loading. Two time periods of accelerated change are identified: early childhood and prepuberty/adolescence.

Trabecular Bone Structure in the Humeral and Femoral Heads of Anthropoid Primates

The functional significance of three-dimensional trabecular bone architecture in the primate postcranial skeleton has received significant interest over the last decade. Some previous work has produced promising results, finding significant relationships between femoral head trabecular bone structure and hypothesized locomotor loading in leaping and nonleaping strepsirrhines. Conversely, most studies of anthropoid femoral head bone structure have found broad similarity across taxonomic and locomotor groups. The goal of this study is to expand on past analyses of anthropoid trabecular bone structure by assessing the effects of differential limb usage on the trabecular bone architecture of the forelimb and hindlimb across taxa characterized by diverse locomotor behaviors, including brachiation, quadrupedalism, and climbing. High-resolution x-ray computed tomography scans were collected from the proximal humerus and proximal femur of 55 individuals from five anthropoid primate species, including Symphalangus syndactylus, Papio sp., Presbytis rubicunda, Alouatta caraya, and Pan troglodytes. Trabecular bone structural features including bone volume fraction, anisotropy, trabecular thickness, and trabecular number were quantified in large volumes positioned in the center of the humeral or femoral head. Femoral head trabecular bone volume is consistently and significantly higher than trabecular bone volume in the humerus in all taxa independent of locomotor behavior. Humeral trabecular bone is more isotropic than femoral trabecular bone in all species sampled, possibly reflecting the emphasis on a mobile shoulder joint and manipulative forelimb. The results indicate broad similarity in trabecular bone structure in these bones across anthropoids.

Digital Endocasts of the Cranial Cavity and Osseous Labyrinth of the Burrowing Snake Uropeltis woodmasoni (Alethinophidia: Uropeltidae)

The endocranial space, nerve pattern, and inner ear of a specimen of Uropeltis woodmasoni are described from digital endocasts rendered from high-resolution X-ray computed tomography scans. The cast of the endocranial space reveals short, stout olfactory bulbs as well as general shortening of the brain along the longitudinal axis. The pattern of innervation agrees with descriptions reported for other uropeltid snakes, although this individual exhibits skull asymmetry in the pathway of the glossopharyngeal nerve and the bifurcation of the jugular canal. There are no internal connections between the perilymphatic canal leading to the foramen pseudorotundum, the recessus scala tympani, and the jugular canal, a situation that differs from those of other alethinophidian snakes. The inner ear is compactly packaged with smoothly curved semicircular canals located in close proximity to the vestibule. Semicircular canal size is comparable to those of larger snakes, and the small size of the skull (9.4 mm) coupled with relative enlargement of the sensory regions of the brain and otic capsule is consistent with the morphological pattern of miniaturized vertebrates, although compounding factors, including phylogeny, ontogeny, and variation, are currently not well understood.

Petrosal anatomy in the fossil mammal Necrolestes: evidence for metatherian affinities and comparisons with the extant marsupial mole

We present reconstructions of petrosal anatomy based on high-resolution X-ray computed tomography scans for the fossil mammal Necrolestes and for the marsupial mole Notoryctes sp. Compared with other mammals, Necrolestes exhibits a mosaic of plesiomorphic and derived characters, but most of the evidence supports its metatherian status. We revised previous descriptions and report on features of phylogenetic or functional significance. Necrolestes exhibits features that support metatherian affinities, such as the presence of a short and lateral prootic canal, and the loss of the stapedial artery in adults. A deep groove at the anterior pole of the promontorium is present in front of the cochlear housing, a variant on the extrabullar pathway of the internal carotid artery. The promontorium is laterally bordered by a large bony projection resembling the eutherian tegmen tympani [De Beer GR (1937) The Development of the Vertebrate Skull, Oxford, Clarendon Press, p. 391]. Posteromedial to the secondary facial foramen and anterolateral to the fenestra vestibuli is a pronounced fossa for the tensor tympani muscle. On the medial part of the pars canalicularis there is a great inflation of the medial side of the caudal tympanic process, a structure of unknown function. The internal acoustic meatus exhibits a broad transverse septum and is bordered laterally by a broad prefacial commissure. The cochleae of Necrolestes and of Notoryctes have fewer spiral turns (1.1 and 1.6, respectively) than most marsupials. The lateral semicircular canal is more expanded than the posterior semicircular canal in Necrolestes but not in Notoryctes. Both Necrolestes and Notoryctes have a second crus commune, i.e. the lateral semicircular canal opens into the ampulla of the posterior semicircular canal. A stylomastoid foramen enclosed anterodorsally by both the pars cochlearis and pars canalicularis is present in Dasyuridae, Dromiciops gliroides and Notoryctes.

Using High‐Resolution Computed Tomography Analysis To Characterize Soil‐Surface Seals

High‐resolution X‐ray computed tomography (HRCT) acquires three‐dimensional (3D) images of objects using rapid, nondestructive, and noninvasive procedures. Data from HRCT scanners may be useful for quantitative analyses of soil‐surface seals. Raindrop impact decreases porosity and increases density (ρ) through a process known as surface sealing. Few studies have attempted porosity measurements of intact seals. The objective of this study was to evaluate the ability of HRCT scans of surface seals from a silt loam soil to measure ≥ 15‐μm equivalent diameter (e.d.) pores within developing seals. Soil was either treated with anionic polyacrylamide (PAM) or untreated, and subjected to simulated rainfall durations of 7.5, 15, 30, and 60 min at a 55‐mm h−1 rainfall intensity. Seal analysis included: pore‐size distribution, cumulative porosity of the 0‐ to 2‐mm depth and cumulative porosity of the upper 0‐ to 1‐ and lower 1‐ to 2‐mm zones through seals. The difference in cumulative porosity between PAM‐treated vs. untreated soil significantly increased with rainfall duration. Pore frequency was greatly reduced in pores with pore sizes from 1 × 10−4 to 1 × 10−5 mm3 The modal pore‐size frequency with 1 × 10−5‐mm3 pores for the PAM‐treated soil was reduced from 992 to 812 pores between 7.5 and 60 min of rain, whereas pores in the untreated soil were reduced from 649 to 217 pores in the same conditions. The cumulative porosity of the 0‐ to 2‐mm sample after 7.5‐min of rainfall was 0.018 mm mm−1 with no difference between PAM‐treated and untreated soil. After 60 min of rainfall the cumulative porosity was reduced to 0.0156 mm mm−1 for PAM‐treated soil and 0.0004 mm mm−1 for untreated soil. The cumulative porosity for the 0‐ to 1‐mm depth zone for PAM‐treated and untreated soil after 60 min of rainfall was 0.011 mm mm−1 vs. < 0.001 mm mm−1, and 0.043 mm mm−1 vs. 0.008 mm mm−1 for the 0‐ to 1‐mm depth zone, documenting that PAM‐treated soil had significantly less reduction in porosity over the 60‐min rainfall duration. Results show that HRCT provides quantitative measurements of changes of ≥ 15‐μm pore characteristics over time.

High resolution X-ray computed tomography studies of Grasberg porphyry Cu-Au ores, Papua, Indonesia

High-resolution X-ray computed tomography (HRXCT) provides unique information of the geological and metallurgical significance for gold and related ore minerals in the supergiant Grasberg porphyry Cu–Au deposit. Digital radiographs have proved to be an effective means of screening samples for the presence of gold for HRXCT studies. Digital radiograph effectiveness is limited by the thickness of samples (typically to ≤2 cm), as well as the associated minerals. Thus, preselecting samples for gold studies using HRXCT is most effective using digital radiographs combined with assay information. Differentiating between metallic mineral grains with relatively small differences in density, e.g., bornite (5.1 g/cm3) from chalcopyrite (4.2 g/cm3), is relatively straightforward for isolated monominerallic grains or composites in a similar lower-density matrix, but difficulties are encountered with the interpretation of typical intergrown ore minerals. X-ray beam-hardening artifacts lead to inconsistency in attenuation determination, both within and among slice images, complicating quantitative processing. However, differentiation of chalcopyrite and bornite has been successful in smaller-diameter (≤22-mm) cores of Grasberg ores. Small-diameter (≤10 mm) cores of the Grasberg stockwork Cu–Au ore were analyzed using HRXCT methods scanned at the minimum spacing currently available (7.5 μm), and data reduction protocols using the Blob3D program were modified to improve the quantification of grain sizes and shapes. Grains as small as 6.5 μm have been identified. All of these grains are in direct contact with chalcopyrite, providing support for gold distribution in porphyry copper systems being a result of exsolution from copper sulfides. HRXCT scanning (±digital radiography) precisely defines the in situ location of mineral grains of interest within a sample, which then can be studied in conventional petrographic sections, and other types of analytical studies conducted, e.g., gold trace element geochemistry.

The naso-frontal joint in snakes as revealed by high-resolution X-ray computed tomography of intact and complete skulls

The naso-frontal joint of snakes is described on the basis of high-resolution X-ray computed tomography scans of single individuals of spirit-preserved snake specimens. The suspension of the snout unit from the braincase at the naso-frontal joint shows some broad evolutionary trends among snakes with potential phylogenetic implications, such as sutured or fused medial frontal flanges formed by the medial frontal pillars and the frontal subolfactory processes (in alethinophidians), the restriction of the usually extended dorsoventral contact of the medial nasal flange with the medial frontal flanges to a dorsal or ventral contact (in macrostomatans), and the transfer of the main element of snout suspension from the nasal to the septomaxilla (in colubroids). Some phylogenetic implications of the morphological characters identified in this study are outlined and discussed.

High-resolution X-ray computed tomography of an Early Cretaceous gekkonomorph (Squamata) from Öösh (Övörkhangai; Mongolia)

We describe the braincase of AMNH FR 21444, a gecko-like squamate from the Early Cretaceous of Mongolia, based on high-resolution X-ray computed tomography scans (CT scans) and incorporate it in a phylogenetic analysis of 36 squamate taxa scored for 226 morphological characters. Our analysis corroborates the Eublepharidae-Gekkonoidea split as the basal gekkotan dichotomy, but retrieves Teratoscincus as the sister-taxon to pygopodines + diplodactylines. The combination of plesiomorphic and apomorphic character states within AMNH FR 21444 demonstrates a decoupled evolutionary history between the braincase and the rest of the skull and mandible within gekkonomorph squamates. Enclosure of the lateral head vein and mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve are both plesiomorphic for gekkonomorphs. The mechanisms responsible for the transition from the plesiomorphic skull roof of basal gekkonomorphs to the modern gekkotan condition cannot be anticipated given the current data.

Description of a cranial endocast from a fossil platypus,Obdurodon dicksoni (Monotremata, Ornithorhynchidae), and the relevance of endocranial characters to monotreme monophyly

A digital cranial endocast of the Miocene platypus Obdurodon dicksoni was extracted from high-resolution X-ray computed tomography scans. This endocast represents the oldest from an unequivocal member of either extant monotreme lineage and is therefore important for inferring character support for Monotremata, a clade that is not well diagnosed. We describe the Obdurodon endocast with reference to endocasts extracted from skulls of the three species of extant monotremes, particularly Ornithorhynchus anatinus, the duckbill platypus. We consulted published descriptions and illustrations of whole and sectioned brains of monotremes to determine which external features of the nervous system are represented on the endocasts. Similar to Ornithorhynchus, well-developed parafloccular casts and reduced olfactory bulb casts are present in the Obdurodon endocast. Reduction of the olfactory bulbs in comparison with tachyglossids and therian mammals is a potential apomorphy for Ornithorhynchidae. The trigeminal nuclei, ganglia, and nerves (i.e., trigeminal complex) are enlarged in Obdurodon, as evidenced by their casts on the endocast, as is the case in the extant platypus. The visibility of enlarged trigeminal nucleus casts on the endocasts of Obdurodon and Ornithorhynchus is a possible synapomorphy of Ornithorhynchidae. Electroreception and enlargement of the trigeminal complex are possible synapomorphies for Monotremata.

Cranial osteology of the African gerrhosaurid Angolosaurus skoogi (Squamata; Gerrhosauridae)

Phylogenetic relationships both within and between the scincomorph families Gerrhosauridae and Cordylidae are in need of re‐examination. Currently the basal gerrhosaurid is unknown, although Angolosaurus skoogi previously was proposed as the sister taxon to mainland African gerrhosaurids. Many details of the cranial osteology of A. skoogi are also unknown because of the rarity in museum collections and elusive lifestyle of this dune‐dwelling lizard, endemic to the Namib Desert. In this study, High‐Resolution X‐ray Computed Tomography (HRXCT) was used to study in detail the cranial osteology of A. skoogi. Results of this study enabled completion of the first anatomical description of the skull and mandible of A. skoogi. Throughout the description, reference is made to a fully labeled cross‐sectional HRXCT data set, available online as supplementary material. Detailed information on cranial osteology obtained from these data can help resolve the contentious placement of A. skoogi within Gerrhosauridae. Unlike other Cordyliformes (Gerrhosauridae + Cordylidae), the post‐frontal in A. skoogi is not extensive and does not extend posteriorly beyond the orbital margin. The squamosal is not bifurcated anteriorly in A. skoogi, unlike other gerrhosaurids. In the braincase of A. skoogi, there is no separate foramen for passage of the glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX). This morphological study emphasizes the utility of both HRXCT scans and disarticulated skeletal material as valuable sources of phylogenetically‐informative data.