High-quality Wood Research Articles

An in-depth study of the strengthening mechanism in wood scrimber prepared via roller-pressing impregnation technology

Wood scrimber, a new type of wood composite material, can replace nature high-quality wood. To improve the mechanical properties and dimensional stability of scrimber for wider applications, a negative pressure resin-absorption method called “roller-pressing impregnation” was developed to produce wood scrimber in this study. Compared to the properties of wood scrimber prepared using the cage impregnation method (CWS), roller-pressing impregnated wood scrimber (RWS) exhibited significantly reduced surface roughness and wettability. Moreover, the thickness and width swelling rate of RWS decreased by 26.15 % and 18.77 % respectively, while the modulus of rupture increased by 12.45 %. Microscopic observation demonstrated that the weak tissue (middle lamella and vessels) in the oriented wood fiber mats (OWFMs) were damaged during the roller-pressing process. Meanwhile, these cleaved cellular helped the resin be absorbed more uniformly into the vessel cavities by the negative pressure, which enhanced the strength of the resin bonding between cells and also strengthened the hardness and elastic modulus of the cell wall. Therefore, the dimensional stability and mechanical properties of the scrimber were successfully enhanced. The in-depth exploration of the mechanism behind the roller impregnation technology was expected to accelerate the accurate controlling of the wood scrimber properties for continuous production.

PRODUCTION OF SODIUM CARBOXYMETHYLCELLULOSE FROM PINE WOOD WASTE AND INVESTIGATION OF ITS PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES

With the increasing use of wood resources, wood waste disposal is becoming a more pressing issue. Wood waste can be effectively processed and reused, thus reducing environmental impact. Our study proposes using wood waste to produce sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (Na-CMC) with enhanced physical and chemical properties. The paper explores a promising approach to processing Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) wood waste via the suspension method to obtain the biopolymer Na-CMC. The ability to convert pine sawdust into Na-CMC meets the demand for high-quality wood raw materials, expands the biopolymer's applications, and reduces the environmental and economic burden of wood consumption. The aim of this study is to produce Na-CMC from Scots pine sawdust at 60°C and 80°C and investigate the biopolymer’s physical and chemical properties. In laboratory experiments, Na-CMC samples were synthesized at 60°C and 80°C using sodium hydroxide, propanol-2, and sodium monochloroacetate (Na-MCA). The physical and chemical properties of Na-CMC were studied such as functional groups (hydroxyl, methylene, carbonyl), alcohol and ether bonds by IR spectrophotometry; molecular mass, polymerization degree, and viscosity of polymer solutions by viscometry; carboxymethyl groups by conductometric titration; and product yield and solubility by gravimetry. The scientific and practical significance of the chemical modification of wood sawdust cellulose has been established, with carboxymethylation proving effective at 60°C

Differential Degradation of Wooden Cutting Boards and Ergonomic Aspects of Beef and Chevon Marketing in Port Harcourt, Nigeria

Abstract Although wood degradation and ergonomics are critical design issues in the wood product industry worldwide, data on wood as a degradable and culturally important material for cutting meat and the ergonomics of meat marketing in urban Nigerian markets are unavailable. This study investigated the degradation of wooden cutting boards (WCB) caused by meat cutting and marketing ergonomics. Degradation was estimated using eight WCB administered to four participants marketing chevon and four participants marketing beef. Descriptive and anthropometric data were obtained from 129 participants using questionnaires and measurements. The degradation results showed that after three months, cutting meat caused a significant monthly average WCB loss of 19.6 ± 4% and 11.6 ± 4% and a cumulative weight loss of 58.17% and 34.72% for chevon and beef, respectively. A substantial number of meat marketers were found to work in awkward postures, especially in the upper extremity mismatched condition, where they potentially exert more force, resulting in contact between the cutting tools and WCB that degrades the cutting board during meat cutting. Therefore, mismatched working conditions are a feasible and heightened factor contributing to wood degradation during meat cutting and marketing. The results can help people gain a deeper understanding of wood degradation from commercial meat cutting and the ergonomics of meat marketing and provide strategies for ensuring a sustainable supply of high-quality wood and improving ergonomic conditions.

Enhancing the bending strength, load-carrying capacity and material efficiency of aspen and black alder plywood through thermo-mechanical densification of face veneers

Many research papers highlight the positive impact of wood densification on mechanical properties of solid wood as well as wood veneers. Previous experimental studies comparing densified to non-densified wood materials of the same thickness consistently demonstrated higher strength properties in bending for densified materials. However, these studies often overlooked an important comparison: the strength and load-carrying capacity of non-densified wood material to its densified state, in which the thickness is reduced and thus the material’s moment of inertia. The current study, aims to address this gap for plywood made from low-quality, underutilized hardwood species, encompassing both non-densified and densified veneers. Additionally, these plywood panels are compared with high-quality birch plywood. Plywood samples made from common aspen (Populus tremula L.) and black alder (Alnus glutinosa L.) species, incorporating densified veneers, are compared to conventional silver birch (Betula pendula Roth.) plywood. The study also considers material utilization efficiency. Results showed that plywood made from non-densified aspen and black alder veneers exhibited comparable strength to standard birch plywood, positioning them as competitive alternatives to high-quality wood species. While densified black alder veneers increased strength in average from 83.6 MPa to 126.3 MPa, a loss in load-carrying capacity was observed from 1930 N to 1637 N due to reduced thickness and moment of inertia.

Genetic resources of African mahogany in Brazil: genomic diversity and structure of forest plantations

BackgroundAfrican mahogany species (Khaya sp.) have been introduced to Brazil gaining increasing economic interest over the last years, as they produce high quality wood for industrial applications. To this date, however, the knowledge available on the genetic basis of African mahogany plantations in Brazil is limited, which has driven this study to examine the extent of genetic diversity and structure of three cultivated species (Khaya grandifoliola, Khaya senegalensis and Khaya ivorensis) and their prospects for forest breeding.ResultsIn total, 115 individuals were genotyped (48 of K. grandifoliola, 34 of K. senegalensis and 33 of K. ivorensis) for 3,330 filtered neutral loci obtained from genotyping-by-sequencing for the three species. The number of SNPs varied from 2,951 in K. ivorensis to 4,754 in K. senegalensis. Multiloci clustering, principal component analysis, Bayesian structure and network analyses showed a clear genetic separation among the three species. Structure analysis also showed internal structure within each species, highlighting genetic subgroups that could be sampled for selecting distinct genotypes for further breeding, although the genetic distances are moderate to low.ConclusionIn our study, SNP markers efficiently assessed the genomic diversity of African mahogany forest plantations in Brazil. Our genetic data clearly separated the three Khaya species. Moreover, pairwise estimates of genetic distances among individuals within each species showed considerable genetic divergence among individuals. By genotyping 115 pre-selected individuals with desirable growth traits, allowed us not only to recommend superior genotypes but also to identify genetically distinct individuals for use in breeding crosses.

Lignocellulose hydrothermal artificial humic acid production: Reaction parameters screening and investigation of model/real feedstock

Utilizing relatively mild hydrothermal conversion technique (under optimized conditions, 200 °C, 4 h, 1:10 solid-liquid ratio, 0.5 M NaOH), lignocellulosic biomass can be efficiently transformed into humic acids, thereby significantly enhancing its utilization. Additionally, this approach provides a means for precise manipulation of the composition and properties of the resulting humic acids. In this comprehensive study, lignocellulosic biomass, comprising various attributes like coniferous, broadleaf, and grassy species, as well as model components like cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, underwent hydrothermal reactions to produce humic acids. Firstly, a systematic evaluation was conducted to determine the influence of operational parameters on the formation of humic acids. Subsequently, the characteristics of humic acids derived from diverse lignocellulosic biomass sources were analyzed and benchmarked against commercial humic acids. Based on the empirical findings, a mechanistic pathway for the generation of humic acids was figured out. The results indicate that the primary stages in the hydrothermal conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to humic acids involve initial hydrolysis into smaller molecular components, followed by further reactions leading to the formation of humic acids. Notably, the interplay between cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and other minor components, such as tannins and pectins, plays a pivotal role in the synthesis of humic acids. The characterization of the derived humic acids revealed several noteworthy distinctions from commercial products. In the infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and elemental analysis (EA) characterization, the synthetic humic acid has more oxygen functional groups, alkane groups and aromatic structures. In the X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), the synthetic humic acid has more diverse forms and proportions of elements. In thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), the synthesized humic acid has higher thermal stability. The synthetic humic acid has a rougher surface microstructure. The synthetic humic acid has higher fluorescence intensity in three-dimensional fluorescence spectrum (3D EEM). Lignocellulose biomass raw materials with high wood quality content can obtain higher humic acid yield, but the interaction of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and other group components (such as tannins, pectin, etc.) in the hydrothermal process plays an important role in the generation of humic acid. This research offers valuable insights into the chemically driven production of humic acids and the strategic control of their properties, based on the structural and compositional nuances of the raw materials.

Optimalisasi Limbah Serbuk Gergaji Kayu Jati (Tectona grandis L.f) Sebagai Adsorben Logam Berat Kobalt (Co) dengan Metode Aktivasi Kimia

Teak wood (Tectona grandis L.f.), a high-quality wood commonly used in Indonesia, specifically in the Cilegon area, has the potential to be used as an alternative to reduce environmental pollution. This research aimed to test teak wood sawdust waste as an adsorbent for cobalt heavy metal, create activated charcoal from the sawdust waste for the same purpose, and determine the optimal conditions for treatment with and without chemical activation. Industrial waste samples were found to contain 50.7 ppm of cobalt metal through ICPS testing. Activated chemical adsorption, without activation and with industrial wastewater mixture, resulted in a decrease in cobalt metal concentration by 78.2% or 11.08 ppm. The optimal conditions for activated chemical adsorption were found at a pH of 5, an adsorbent mass of 600 mg, and a time of 40 minutes, resulting in decreases of 60.9% (21.2751 ppm), 71% (15.7821 ppm) and 67.7% (17.5812 ppm), respectively. The results show that teak wood sawdust waste can effectively adsorb cobalt heavy metal, providing a potential solution for industrial wastewater treatment.

L1-Tree: A novel algorithm for constructing 3D tree models and estimating branch architectural traits using terrestrial laser scanning data

Branch architecture provides crucial information for the understanding of plant trait variability and the adaptive strategies employed by trees in response to their environment. High-fidelity terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) data provide an accurate, efficient, and non-destructive means for constructing three-dimensional (3D) tree models and estimating architectural traits. However, the complex canopy structure of trees in natural forests and the presence of occlusion in TLS data pose significant challenges to achieving this goal. In this study, we present a novel algorithm, L1-Tree, for the construction of 3D tree models and the estimation of architectural traits from TLS data. This algorithm is grounded in the L1-Median algorithm and integrates a tree skeleton optimization procedure that considers the structural characteristics of tree branches. By comparing modeling results and manually derived branch traits for 24 trees of 24 species, we found that the L1-Tree algorithm achieved precision, recall, and F-score values of 0.94 for branch identification, coefficient of determination, root-mean-squared error, and normalized root-mean-squared error of 0.998, 0.068 m, and 0.3 % for branch length estimation, and a respective value of 0.958, 0.257 cm and 0.9 % for branch radius estimation. Additionally, the branch identification accuracy and accuracy in branch architectural trait estimation remained satisfactory across branch orders. Compared to established 3D tree model construction algorithms (e.g., TreeQSM), our L1-Tree algorithm demonstrated a superior capability in handling noisy environments and data gaps, making it a robust tool for TLS data-based tree architecture studies. Leaf-wood separation emerged as a crucial step influencing the performance of the L1-Tree algorithm. We observed significant drop in branch identification accuracy when using an automatic leaf-wood separation algorithm as input, highlighting the urgent need to develop effective leaf-wood separation algorithms to generate high-quality wood point clouds for tree architecture studies.

Environmental potentials from wood cascading: A future-oriented consequential yet dynamic approach considering market and time-dependent biogenic carbon effects for selected scenarios under German conditions

As sustainable forestry limits the roundwood supply, wood cascading emerges as a promising concept to meet the growing demand resulting from Germany's transition to a bioeconomy. To assess the environmental impacts of wood cascading resulting from shifting the incineration of recovered wood and the associated substitution of future energy mixes and materials, a consequential life cycle assessment (CLCA) of a wood cascading system providing glued-laminated timber (GLT), particleboard, heat, and electricity is conducted. The assessment of environmental consequences requires a holistic approach, including future-oriented German energy and market scenarios. Furthermore, to analyze the impact of biogenic carbon dynamics, this CLCA was coupled with a dynamic life cycle assessment (DLCA) considering forest growth scenarios and temporal aspects. The results indicate a strong influence of market shifts related to material substitution, followed by energy substitution on the environmental impacts of wood cascading. In fact, the results endorse the implementation of the concept of high-quality wood cascading for substituting non-wood products in Germany, as a transformational path towards a bioeconomy and the achievement of net greenhouse gas neutrality. Compared to the effects of the material and energy substitution scenarios, the forest growth scenarios, which focus on tree species composition influenced by future temperature change and CO2 concentration scenarios, only show a minor influence on global warming impacts. As the findings from applying DLCA contrast with the static approach, it emphasizes the importance of a time-differentiated analysis of biogenic carbon in the evaluation of wood cascading.

The Effect of Hardwood Veneer Densification on Plywood Density, Surface Hardness, and Screw Withdrawal Capacity

Increasing environmental awareness and the carbon-storing capability of wood have amplified its relevance as a building material. The demand for high-quality wood species necessitates exploring alternative, underutilized wood sources due to limited forest areas and premium wood volume. Consequently, the veneer-based industry is considering lower-value hardwood species like grey alder (Alnus Incania), black alder (Alnus glutinosa), and aspen (Populus tremula) as substitutes for high-quality birch (Betula pendula). Initially less appealing due to their lower density and mechanical properties, these species show promise through densification, which enhances their density, strength, and hardness. This study aims to enhance plywood screw withdrawal capacity and surface hardness by densifying low-density wood species and using them in plywood face-veneer layers, or in all layers. The relationship between the wood density, surface hardness, and screw withdrawal capacity of plywood made of low-value species like aspen and black alder is examined. Experimental work with a pilot-scale veneer and plywood production line demonstrates improved surface hardness (65% and 93% for aspen and black alder, respectively) and screw withdrawal capacity (16% and 35% for aspen and black alder, respectively) in densified face veneer plywood. This research highlights the potential of densified low-value wood species to meet construction requirements, expanding their practical applications.

Wavy grain in sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus) — a structural analysis of xylem and phloem

Summary Wavy grain (fiddle back) in trees has attracted the interest of both science and industry due to its aesthetic and economic importance. As the underlying causes of this particular structural feature in trees remain uncertain, this study investigates the possibility of non-invasively detecting wavy grain patterns within tree bark tissue of sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus). Wavy grain, characterized by alternating light and dark stripes on the wood surface, is highly valued in the production of musical instruments. This research explores the potential of employing transmission light microscopy and microcomputer tomography (μCT) to examine the internal structure of phloem tissue to inspect whether the wavy grain structure found in the xylem continues in the bark. The investigation of phloem tissue proved challenging due to its irregular cellular arrangement. Nonetheless, slight phloem fibre deviations were observed in individual trees. However, no definite connection was found between the periodic oscillations of the xylem fibre tissue and the structure of the phloem in a given area. Variability in wavy grain expression among the xylem of the trees posed an additional challenge, with amplitudes and wavelengths differing across specimens. The application of μCT offered advantages over traditional sample preparation, enabling the study of the anatomical structure across larger areas and multiple depths without altering the specimen. This study sheds light on the potential of employing advanced imaging techniques to detect wavy grain patterns, providing insights that could benefit industries reliant on high-quality wood, such as musical instrument crafting and forestry.

Fractionation of wood due to industrial chipping: effects and potential for Kraft pulping of European spruce.

The research conducted on kraft cooking of for different chip sizes is often not representative for the industrial process since the chip size fractions were made of high-quality wood without impurities. We evaluated the effects and the potential of cooking non ideal spruce chip fractions after industrial chipping and screening. The chips were classified according to SCAN 40:01, and the respective fractions were cooked under the identical conditions to mimic the effect of a joint cooking in the industrial digester. For the undersized chips we found higher bark content, a lower screened yield, a higher Kappa number, lower fiber length and lower tensile strength. For the oversized chips, the fiber length and tensile index were also considerably lower. A lower wood quality due to high knot content in the larger fractions was found to be the reason for that. Based on the data obtained from the experiments and literature, different process options for increased yield and reduced chemical consumption are discussed, e.g., separate cooking of different chip fractions. Improved chip screening seems to be the process improvement with lowest costs and highest impact.

Three-dimensional modeling of moisture transport in wood using near-infrared hyperspectral imaging and X-ray computed tomography in conjunction with finite element analysis

In past studies, finite element analysis (FEA) methods have been used to simulate the thermal and moisture coupling of wood. However, challenges remain in achieving high-quality three-dimensional (3D) simulations, mainly because of the heterogeneous and complex structure of wood and its difficult-to-detect internal structure, which makes modeling challenging, in addition to the lack of robust experimental techniques to validate simulation results. In this study, the FEA simulation model was refined by combining X-ray computed tomography (CT) and near-infrared hyperspectral imaging (NIR-HSI). CT was used to probe the 3D density of wood, and a novel FEA tetrahedral mesh was constructed based on the results. The NIR-HSI method visualizes the moisture distribution during adsorption and desorption inside the wood. This result is then used to adjust the parameters of the FEA simulation model and as a reference value to evaluate the simulation results. The visualization and simulation results fit well with the theoretical properties. The simulation results can more accurately reflect the spatial distribution and transfer trend of wood moisture at different points in time. Therefore, the CT and NIR-HSI-based 3D heat and moisture-coupled FEA model of wood proposed in this study can be used as a basis for optimizing drying parameters to provide high-quality wood.

Genetic parameters and correlations in growth and wood density traits of Balfourodendron riedelianum based on provenance and progeny testing

Abstract Balfourodendron riedelianum is an important timber species of South America used in civil construction and carpentry. Knowing the genetic variation, heritability and correlation between traits is an essential prerequisite for guiding selection of the best genotypes in tree improvement. In this study, growth (diameter and height) and wood density (mean, pith, middle and bark position) traits were investigated in 30-year-old trees planted in a B. riedelianum provenance and progeny test established in two sites, Luiz Antônio (LA) and Pederneiras (PE), in São Paulo State (Brazil). ANOVA results showed significant differences between sites for all traits, among provenances and families for wood density traits in the LA site and among families for growth traits in PE. Provenance x site and family x site interactions were significant for almost traits, and genetic correlation between sites was low for all traits (0.17–0.20). Genetic variation (CV g) was higher (4.0–5.4 %) and mean family heritability (h m 2) was lower for growth (0.12–0.20) compared to wood density (CV g: 2.3–3.8%, h m 2: 0.31–0.59) traits. Genetic correlation was significantly positive and ranged from moderate to high between growth traits (0.47–0.68) and between wood density traits (0.42–0.83) and non-significant between growth and wood density (-0.22–0.30) traits. An analysis of different radial positions showed that heritability tended to increase from pith to the bark position. Our results show a lower environmental effect on wood density traits, allowing the possibility of selecting superior provenances and families with high wood quality in breeding programs in both sites.

Research Progress of Reinforced Modification of Fast-Growing Wood

The public’s requirements for a high-quality residential environment and the general improvement in ecological safety awareness have made renewable resource wood and products more favored by furniture, construction and other industries. However, on the one hand, the supply of natural forests is extremely limited, and on the other hand, the materials of artificial forests have defects such as low surface strength and poor dimensional stability due to a loose fiber structure, which restricts their promotion as an alternative to high-quality wood. In this paper, based on the mechanism of wood reinforcement, several reinforcement techniques, such as impregnation, compaction and surface modification, which are widely used in industry, are briefly introduced. On this basis, the possibility of impregnation as a pretreatment method, surface modification and densification to enhance wood was prospected. It is expected to provide reference for improving the added value of plantation wood and alleviating the contradiction between wood supply and demand.

Strong and Durable Wood Designed by Cell Wall Bulking Combined with Cell Lumen Filling.

Traditional wood-polymer composite (WPC) based on the in situ polymerization of ethylene unsaturated monomers in the cellular cavity of wood is significant for the high-value-added utilization of low-quality wood. However, this type of WPC has the problems of volatile monomers, low conversion rates, odor residue, and poor compatibility between the polymer and wood interface, which hinder its promotion and application. In this study, a two-step process of cell wall bulking in combination with cell lumen filling was prepared to modify wood using Maleic anhydride (MAN) as the bulking agent and GMA-EGDMA (molar ratio 2:1) as the active monomer system. The results indicate that the modulus of rupture (MOR) (125.19 ± 8.41 MPa), compressive strength (116.38 ± 7.69 MPa), impact toughness (55.4 ± 2.95 KJ m-2), and hardness (6187 ± 273 N) of the bulking-filling wood composite materials were improved by 54%, 56%, 36%, and 66%, respectively, compared with those of poplar wood. These properties were superior to those of the traditional styrene (PSt)-WPC and even exceeded the performance of Xylosma congesta (Lour.) Merr, a high-quality wood from northeast China. Meanwhile, the mass loss of wood composite materials with bulking-filling treatment was only 2.35 ± 0.05%, and the internal structure remained intact, presenting excellent decay resistance. Additionally, the treatment also significantly improved the thermal and dimensional stability of the wood composites. This study provides a theoretical basis and guidance for realizing the high-value-added application of low-quality wood and the preparation of highly durable wood-based composites.

A simple method for Eucalyptus species discrimination: FTIR spectroscopy and machine learning

Wood sample classification is crucial in forestry, woodworking, and conservation efforts. It involves categorizing wood species based on physical characteristics like grain patterns, color, texture, and density. However, there are scientific gaps that hinder its effectiveness. One challenge is the difficulty in differentiating wood species with similar characteristics. To address this, we propose using FTIR spectroscopy and machine learning algorithms. In our study, we focused on the accurate classification of Corymbia citriodora (CIT), Eucalyptus grandis (GRA), and the hybrid species GG100 (GG). We evaluated bark and sapwood samples to determine the best for such a purpose. Using FTIR spectroscopy and Quadratic Discriminant Analysis with only seven PCs, we achieved 100% accuracy in bark sample classification. This approach offers advantages because FTIR spectroscopy captures unique chemical fingerprints, providing rapid and non-destructive analysis of wood samples. Machine learning algorithms learn from these spectral patterns for accurate species prediction. Notably, bark samples, easily obtained without tree damage, showed excellent classification results. By incorporating FTIR spectroscopy and machine learning, we can overcome the challenges of inter-species similarities and intra-species variations. This improves reliability and accuracy, supporting and ensuring high-quality wood products. Integrating FTIR spectroscopy and machine learning presents a promising solution for enhancing wood sample classification. Further research can expand species classification and improve wood identification processes.

Improvement of agrotechnical conditions of growing paulownia in the Forest Steppe of Ukraine

Purpose. The purpose of the study was to improve the agrotechnical conditions for growing paulownia and its artificially bred variety Clone in vitro 112 in the Forest Steppe zone of Ukraine.
 Methods. Field, laboratory, visual, measuring and weighing, mathematical and statistical.
 Results. The article presents the results of research on the improvement of agrotechnical growing conditions and establishment of indicators of growth and development of paulownia plants in the Central Forest Steppe of Ukraine. The methods of planting, the optimal width between the rows, and the options for caring for the plantation of plants have been substantiated. It was established that in the first year of vegetation, the root system of paulownia plants is intensively formed. In order to obtain high-quality wood, after the first year of vegetation, it is necessary to make a technical cut at a height of 2–3 cm from the surface of the ground and remove young newly formed shoots (tillers). The highest trunk height of Clone in vitro 112 was formed in the first and second year of vegetation and reached 5–6 m. The optimal planting density is 625 plants per hectare. Conclusions. It was established that paulownia seedlings in vitro should undergo adaptation to the temperature conditions of the growing area for two to three weeks before planting in open ground.

Availability of Raw Material for Wood Based Cricket Bat Industry in Kashmir Valley, India

Kashmir Himalayas is known for its abundant supply of high quality wood suitable for cricket bat industry. The present study aimed to gather comprehensive data on the availability of raw material for the cricket bat industry in Anantnag and Pulwama districts of Kashmir during the specified time period (2017-2018). The main objective of this study was to evaluate the major problems faced by the industry and to assess quality parameters of cleft and the wood used for making these clefts. Shortage of quality raw material, absence of proper marketing channels and irregular electricity supply were the major factors responsible for production shortfall. The units used wood of Salix alba var. caerulea as main raw material while Populus deltoides wood was also used for low quality bats. For the study, latest available official records of Government of Jammu and Kashmir as well as questionnaire based sample survey data were used. The industry produced 15.10 crore clefts that consumed 17,28,532 ft 3 of wood. Sample survey revealed that in 2016, the selected 62 units procured 5,84,557 ft3 of wood with an average of 9,428.33 ft3 per unit.

Comparison of mechanical performance uncertainties for sustainable high-performance bamboo/wood composites

Sustainable building materials play a vital role in achieving carbon peaking and carbon neutrality goals. Comprehensive knowledge is required to fully understand the development status of sustainable building materials, particularly those made from bamboo or wood fiber, and their advantages in terms of mechanical performance and uncertainties compared to natural wood. The development status of sustainable high-performance bamboo/wood composites (SHBWC) is summarized, and a comparative analysis is conducted on the physical and mechanical performance as well as uncertainties of typical SHBWC compared to natural Merbau, which has extreme density. The findings indicate that the high demand for roundwood is exerting pressure on forest resources, leading to a certain extent of scarcity. Among the various SHBWC, bamboo scrimber (including BSM and BSS), wood scrimber (WS), and laminate bamboo lumber (LBL) are identified as most commonly used. These materials have varying densities, with BSM, BSS, WS, LBL, and Merbau following a descending order. BSS material demonstrates superior tensile and bending strength, measuring at 255.47 MPa and 233.12 MPa, respectively, with a modulus of 25.23 GPa, surpassing other materials. SHBWC show enhanced mechanical properties, uncertainties, dense microscopic characteristics, and a shorter sustainable supply cycle than natural hardwood. However, the mechanical performance of the SHBWC tested in this study could be further improved by reducing gaps in their microstructures. Overall, SHBWC offer a viable alternative to natural high-quality wood in construction applications.