High-quality Stone Research Articles

Analysis of Standardized Properties of Slag Crushed Stone Resulting From Crystal-Chemical Stabilization

The shortage of high-quality stone materials for road construction requires the search for alternative materials, the use of which will ensure the proper quality of road pavements. Metallurgical slags are a valuable raw material for the construction industry in general and for road construction in particular due to its properties. However, they are characterized by heterogeneity of composition in different batches and, as a result, physical and mechanical characteristics that change over time. The use of various methods for stabilizing that kind of technogenic raw materials makes it possible to obtain stone raw materials with specified properties. The paper considers the effect of crystal-chemical stabilization of slag in the process of draining on the complex of standardized indicators of the final material – slag rubble. Stabilization of furnace slag during draining made it possible to improve the following standardized indicators: compressive strength grades from 800 to 1200, abrasion grades from IV to II, structural stability of slag against decay from StS2 to StS1, frost resistance to F50. The physical and mechanical properties of the resulting stone material make it possible to use it for the construction of base layers and as part of composite materials for the construction of coatings in road pavement structures.

남강유역 청동기시대 편인석부의 제작과 생산체계

This thesis is a study on the bladed stone ax manufacturing and production system of the Korean bronze age at the Namgang river basin. The bladed stone ax is presumed to be a wood working tool. From the earlier bronze age(早期) to the early years of the bronze age(前期), the flat adze were mainly produced. In the second half of the early years(前期後半), the pillar shaped adze was newly manufactured. In the late period(後期), the pillar shaped adze was improved and the grooved adze was produced. A variety of tool sets have been estab- lished with existing the flat-adze and the pillar shaped adze at the same time. It is estimated that the growing demand for wooden tools as they entered a full-fledged agricultural society in the late bronze age increased the types and quantity of wooden tools and required functional development. In addition, it would have been equipped with an efficient stoneware production system.
 Also, through the distribution network of Hornfels stone knives, which were buried together in tombs and had the majestic character, there is a possibility that high-quality stone tools or materials made of Hornfels other than stone knives were included. The large pillar shaped adze excavated from the remains of the bronze age set- tlement in the Namgang river basin could be the clue.

남강유역 청동기시대 편인석부의 제작과 생산체계

This thesis is a study on the bladed stone ax manufacturing and production system of the Korean bronze age at the Namgang river basin. The bladed stone ax is presumed to be a wood working tool. From the earlier bronze age(早期) to the early years of the bronze age(前期), the flat adze were mainly produced. In the second half of the early years(前期後半), the pillar shaped adze was newly manufactured. In the late period(後期), the pillar shaped adze was improved and the grooved adze was produced. A variety of tool sets have been estab- lished with existing the flat-adze and the pillar shaped adze at the same time. It is estimated that the growing demand for wooden tools as they entered a full-fledged agricultural society in the late bronze age increased the types and quantity of wooden tools and required functional development. In addition, it would have been equipped with an efficient stoneware production system.
 Also, through the distribution network of Hornfels stone knives, which were buried together in tombs and had the majestic character, there is a possibility that high-quality stone tools or materials made of Hornfels other than stone knives were included. The large pillar shaped adze excavated from the remains of the bronze age set- tlement in the Namgang river basin could be the clue.

EXCAVATIONS OF BUILDING A AND LINE OF PALMETTO PALM POSTS AT EK WAY NAL, BELIZE

This paper summarizes excavations of a suspected fish processing location at the submerged site of Ek Way Nal located in Paynes Creek National Park. Based on use-wear analysis of chert tools found near Building A and a line of palmetto palm posts indicated that fish processing was taking place at Ek Way Nal. In addition to fish processing, Ek Way Nal represents one of 110 Late Classic salt making settlements of the southern coast of Belize. Analysis of survey data, excavation data, and artifact analysis provides information about settlement organization, trade relationships, and activities taking place at the Paynes Creek Salt Works. Excavation data also suggests the presence of a deflated leaching mound created through long-term production of salt at this site. High volumes of charcoal indicate large amounts of wood harvested and burnt for brine boiling. Low-quality and high-quality stone tools and debitage indicate local and long-distance acquisition of stone materials. Artifacts associated with preserved wooden structures indicates building function across the site.

Study supporting restoration of rapakivi granite in St. Petersburg

The focus of this ongoing study has been on two rapakivi granites, wiborgite and pyterlite, that have been utilized in St Petersburg since the 1760s but originate from south-eastern Finland. The aims of this study have been to describe the two types of rapakivi granites in their geological settings, to assess the needs for restoration of stones utilized in constructions and to establish databases of stones utilized in historical buildings and of the original and alternative quarries. The focus of this study has been on defining the original quarries for the old building stones or finding other similar substitute granite deposits. Chemical analysis with a handheld XRF instrument was found to be the most promising approach when combined with multivariate mathematical tools. In addition, the applicability of chemical treatment of the surface of rapakivi granite for changing the appearance of stones was investigated. The visual appearance and texture of natural stones used in restoration are the key factors, in addition to the stone type and quality. The chemical treatment of stone surfaces using acidic or metal salt treatments altered the colour tone and visual pattern. Thermal treatment was also found to be effective, but it might be harmful to the surface structure. With further optimisation, chemical treatment could be a feasible method to change the visual appearance of fresh stone in the case of substitution of weathered stone. In addition, this project has initiated cross-border activities that aim to create opportunities for establishing first contacts between the authorities, construction companies, stone producers and the manufacturer who produces the needed high-quality stone pieces.

Neoklaudiopolis’ten Yeni Mezar Yazıtları (Vezirköprü/Samsun)

Up to now, about 140 funerary inscriptions were known from the territory of Neoklaudiopolis/Vezirköprü. In this contribution, 14 more are presented, one of which, however, may be attributed to Amaseia/Amasya (no. 4). They were recorded between 1988 and 1990 by Eckart Olshausen and Gerhard Kahl. All of them date back to the Roman Imperial period. One of the stelae stands out for its unusually high-quality stone carving (no. 8); it was erected by a veteran for his wife. Three other stelae are either composed in a way unusual for Neoklaudiopolis or contain decorative elements, which, until now, are not attested for grave stelae from the territory of this polis: at nos. 1 and 2 a depictive field was inserted between the pediment and the inscription field being separated from the latter by a moulding, at no. 4 a garland is placed above the inscription. Two of the inscriptions use metric language (nos. 4 and 9). Some of them contain rarely attested personal names (nos. 1, 2, 7, 9, 12 and 14). Age information is found in at least two (nos. 10 and 11, possibly also in no. 12). No. 2 and no. 13 are particularly interesting in terms of content. No. 2 mirrors the fate of a man and his mother. In no. 13, the donor of the stele explicitly refers to his deceased wife as his relative – for whatever reason. Finally, in the light of inscriptions nos. 13 and 14, we discuss an inscription published by Christian Marek in an appendix.

Cycles in Stone Mining and Copper Circulation in Europe 5500–2000bc: A View from Space

The authors of this article consider the relationship in European prehistory between the procurement of high-quality stones (for axeheads, daggers, and other tools) on the one hand, and the early mining, crafting, and deposition of copper on the other. The data consist of radiocarbon dates for the exploitation of stone quarries, flint mines, and copper mines, and of information regarding the frequency through time of jade axeheads and copper artefacts. By adopting a broad perspective, spanning much of central-western Europe from 5500 to 2000bc, they identify a general pattern in which the circulation of the first copper artefacts was associated with a decline in specialized stone quarrying. The latter re-emerged in certain regions when copper use decreased, before declining more permanently in the Bell Beaker phase, once copper became more generally available. Regional variations reflect the degrees of connectivity among overlapping copper exchange networks. The patterns revealed are in keeping with previous understandings, refine them through quantification and demonstrate their cyclical nature, with additional reference to likely local demographic trajectories.

Deformations in the Episcopal Basilica in Varna: Evidences of Strong Historical Earthquakes in Northwestern Bulgaria

Our archeoseismological investigations in the Episcopal basilica in Varna have revealed signs of seismic deformations in its walls: numerous shifts, tilts, and rotations of the wall parts around the vertical axis, as well as subvertical through-going joints cutting several stone blocks. A cluster of (at least) three seismic events occurred for a hundred years (from the early 5th to the early 6th centuries AD). Judging by kinematic indicators in the basilica structures built of high-quality stone blocks, the source of seismic motions was located north-northeast of the basilica. Strong seismic oscillations propagated apparently from the southwest. The seismic sources were along seismically active faults localized north and south of Varna. The local seismic intensity of seismic oscillations could reach Il ≤ 9 on MSK-64 scale. The intensity of the seismic oscillations increased due to unfavorable ground conditions at the location of the basilica. These data should be taken into account when assessing the seismic hazard assessment of Varna to build a new map of seismic zoning of northeastern Bulgaria.

The importance of “Pavonazzetto marble” (Docimium-Phrygia/Iscehisar-Turkey) since ancient times and its properties as a global heritage stone resource

In ancient times, many monuments and buildings were built using marble. Especially, the use of marble increased in the Roman Empire period. Important public buildings required the best marble, and generally, high-quality stones were used in imperial building projects. For this purpose, many marble quarries were opened in the empire land, and the old ones were used once again. One of the most important marble quarries was located in the central Phrygia, Asia Minor. Pavonazzetto marble known as Docimaean marble, marmor Phrygium, or Synnadic marble in ancient times was extracted in Iscehisar, ancient Docimium (near modern Afyon in west-central Turkey). Pavonazzetto marble was transported via Synnada, Apameia, and Laodiceia, down the Maeander to Tralles and then to the Port of Ephesos. Pavonazzetto marbles were exported from the Port of Ephesus, to all Mediterranean, the North African coast, South Spain, and South England. The most important evidence proving the exportation of marble from Asia Minor to the entire Mediterranean Region is the shipwrecks with stone cargoes detected on various coasts. Pavonazzetto marble, which is found to be used in ancient cities in various Mediterranean countries, has been used in many buildings and monumental structures such as Pantheon, Forum of Trajan, Forum of Augustus, Temple of Apollo, Temple of Mars Ultor, Basilica Julia, Basilica Aemelia, Basilica San Paolo Fuori Le Mura, Basilica Ulpia, Arch of Constantine, and Baths of Caracalla. The aim of present paper was to introduce Pavonazzetto marble used abundantly in major monuments and buildings in ancient times and having international significance. For this purpose, laboratory studies were carried out for material characterisation of Pavonazzetto marble. Main technical values and parameters were studied by chemical, mineralogical-petrographic (polarising microscope, XRD, and SEM), physical, and mechanical tests/analyses. It was determined that the violet color of this marble type is due to the presence of iron oxide and phlogopite minerals. The results of physical mechanical tests indicated soundness of Pavonazzetto marble.

Evaluation of secondary diamond (and gemstone) deposits according to the SAMREC Code

SYNOPSIS Alluvial diamond and other gemstone deposits have, typically, been exploited by small artisanal operations with little or no geological control. Over the last decade, however, alluvial deposits have become more interesting to larger (often listed), mid-tier companies wishing to benefit from the higher incomes generated by high-quality stones. The difficulties associated with evaluation and valuation of such alluvial diamond/gemstone deposits are widely known but, regrettably, often not widely understood - leading to several misconceptions over what can and cannot be expected from such deposits. Fortunately, there is a reasonably well-established body of knowledge on alluvial diamonds that has resulted in accepted industry-standard practices of how to evaluate these deposits. The 2016 version of the SAMREC Code includes several sections specific to the requirements of secondary diamond and gemstone deposits, both alluvial and marine. Consequently, it is possible to define Diamond/Gemstone Resources in accordance with the major international Committee for Mineral Reserves International Reporting Standards (CRIRSCO) type codes. This paper outlines some of the requirements and some of the pitfalls that need to be appreciated while estimating Diamond/Gemstone Resources and/or Reserves on such deposits. Keywords: Reporting Codes, SAMREC, alluvial diamonds, gemstones, Resources, Reserves.

A Billion Years of History within the Grevena-Deskati Watershed

The river system of West Macedonia comprises the headwaters and western extent of the Aliakmon watershed. This region has a unique and highly complex geologic history (Rassios, 2008; Rassios, 2011), many aspects of which can be inferred by examining conglomerate (river-cobble) formations in the region. These formations contain all rock types found within the modern-day river basin, as well as some which are not found within today's basin. River-deposited sediments and cobbles found along today’s Aliakmon and Venetikos River systems trace the courses of ancient river flows, and thus provide information about past climatic conditions and tectonic events. The sediments making up conglomerate formations in the region are mature, containing cobbles which have been transported, consolidated, eroded and redeposited up to five times (Rassios and Grivas, 1998). This recycling of cobbles leaves only the most durable rocks while softer rocks are destroyed via abrasion. Prehistoric peoples availed themselves of this concentrated and convenient selection of high-quality stones for the purpose of fashioning tools and weapons.

Основные принципы отбора каменного сырья при производстве орудий в индустрии Чагырской Пещеры

This article is devoted to Neanderthal adaptation strategies, whose study is becoming more and more relevant in recent years as a result of new discoveries demonstrating Neanderthal cognitive capabilities. Our perception of this subspecies of ancient hominins and of their work skills is changing in view of these discoveries. In this connection, investigation of easternmost Eurasian Neanderthals’ tool manufacturing processes, who produced stone tools in the absence of flint and with the raw materials available, is supposed to clarify researchers’ ideas about the strategies ensuring the Neanderthal subsistence. Purpose. We focuses on main trends in manufacturing stone tools developed by the Gorny Altai Neanderthals within the framework of the Sibiryachikha industry. Our research is based on attributive analysis within a technicaltypological method. We aimed at identifying technologically significant morphological and metric features of each item from the collection of stone tools found in Chagyrskaya Peshchera (Cave). In the article, we provide typological definitions for the stone tool blanks, identify variants of the tools’ secondary treatment and the number of such traces on the tool, describe the tools’ edges with retouch and give detailed information on the metric parameters of the tools and blanks. The results of the previously published petrographic analysis, which was conducted by N. A. Kulik, in combination with the attributive analysis of stone artifacts from the 6C/1, 2008 assemblage, indicate that there are four main types of raw materials which were mainly used by the Gorny Altai Neanderthals. Results. The greatest variety of raw materials was recorded in the category of blanks without secondary treatment. Among the tools, the greatest variety is demonstrated by tools that have minimal traces of secondary treatment, namely single scrapers and retouched flakes. There seems to be little diversity among double and convergent scrapers, for which zasuryan jasper were predominantly used. As for bifaces, we observe domination of the blanks made of the zasuryan jasper. Conclusion. Our research has confirmed that the basic principles of using raw materials by the Gorny Altai Neanderthals were the quality and availability of these materials. In general, high-quality stone raw materials were used for the production of well-modified tools, such as bifaces, convergent scrapers and retouched points. Such a selectivity of raw material identified for the items from our collection supports the hypothesis that explains a high degree of Neanderthal adaptation to the paleo-environment.

The first example of multi-elemental analysis of water samples from urban monumental fountains-a case study from Zagreb (Croatia).

Water fountains are usually present in the urban public places and often draw the attention of citizens and tourists. Their water is often, in various ways, used by adults and children, but water from fountains is not usually a subject of researchers' interest. This paper describes the analytical procedure and the results of the multi-elemental characterisation of the waters from the selected public water fountains in the city of Zagreb, Republic of Croatia. Twenty-eight chemical elements (Al, As, B, Ba, Be, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Li, Mn, Mo, Ni, P, Pb, S, Sb, Se, Sr, Ti, Tl, V, Zn and Ca, K, Mg and Na) were quantified by means of ICP-AES technique. In addition to the multi-elemental analysis, determination of pH values was performed too. Pearson's correlation coefficients suggest that Al, Cu, Fe, Mn and Pb originate from the plumbing system and their leaching is strongly negatively correlated with the pH values of the tested samples. On the other hand, alkali and alkaline-earth metals as well as Mo, Ti, Zn and B, P and S are most probably of a natural origin in the water samples tested in this study. The results lead to the conclusions that (i) trace and major element content in squirt of a monumental water fountain is analogous to their content in water of the same origin and (ii) a pool of a fountain which is made of a high-quality stone, in the context of the herein performed testings, generally does not affect the quality of water which is contained in it.

Research on the relationship between Wenling traditional dwellings-slabstone cottages and Changyudongtian quarries, China

ABSTRACTIn this article, a type of traditional dwelling referred to as Wenling slabstone cottages, which are found in Aoli Village, Wenling City, Zhejiang Province, China is discussed. Stones are used as the main building materials of these dwellings, while they have seven characteristics that distinguish them from other traditional stone cottages. It was also determined in this article that the location of the Wenling slabstone cottages with distinct characteristics in Aoli Village was adjacent to the large ancient underground quarries of Changyudongtian. Moreover, it was confirmed that the latter provided important high-quality stone materials at low prices for the construction of the Wenling slabstone cottages. It was also pointed out in this article that with the rapid development of modern construction, the unreported Wenling slabstone cottages are gradually disappearing. Therefore, it is very important to carry out the exploration, research, and protection of these cottages in a timely manner.

A Simple System Dynamics Model for the Global Production Rate of Sand, Gravel, Crushed Rock and Stone, Market Prices and Long-Term Supply Embedded into the WORLD6 Model

A model for global supply of sand, gravel and cut stone for construction based on a system dynamics model was developed for inclusion in the WORLD6 model. The Sand-Gravel-Stone model simulates production and market supply, demand and price for natural sand and gravel, sand and gravel from crushed rock and cut stone. The model uses market mechanisms where the demand is depending on population size, maintenance and price. For the period 2000–2050, the WORLD6 model outputs correlate with the GINFORS model outputs (r 2 = 0.98), but they may take different pathways after 2050. The resources of sand and gravel are estimated at 12 trillion ton each, another 125 trillion tons of rock is suitable for crushing to sand and gravel and at least 42 trillion ton of quality stone is available for production of cut stone. The simulation, under assumed business-as-usual conditions, shows that cut stone production will reach a maximum level by about 2020–2030 and stabilize after that. The cause for this is that demand exceeds extraction as well as slow exhaustion of the known reserves of high-quality stone. Sand and gravel show plateau behaviour and reach their maximum production rate in 2060–2070. The reason for the slight peak towards a plateau behaviour is partly driven by an expected population decline and increasing prices for sand and gravel, limiting demand. Assuming business-as-usual conditions rates remain at that level for centuries.

Heat treatment of Pennsylvania jasper

Heat treatment of silicate toolstone was performed prehistorically, which we assume was to improve characteristics desired in flintknapping, such as increased brittleness and more predictable and controlled conchoidal fracture. However, despite research into heat treatment spanning 50 years, the mechanisms by which stone was improved, and the reasons why people did it, remain unclear. In this study, experiments were designed to test two potential outcomes of heat treatment for Pennsylvania jasper. First, does heating reduce the disruptive effect of macroscopic impurities and flaws on controlled flaking? Second, does heating increase the stone’s brittleness as suggested by Crabtree and Butler in 1964? Such physical alterations would improve the quality of lithic material but may not always occur in high quality stone. The results of these experiments are used to hypothesize the expected heat treatment outcomes sought after by prehistoric flintknappers.

Identifying and managing failures in stone processing industry using cost-based FMEA

The quality of manufactured goods is one of the most important prerequisites that ensure industrial development of the countries, persistence, and the competitiveness of businesses in global market. For this reason, the lack of qualitative characteristics in the products of some manufacturing units causes the absence of their competition in the market. One of the major problems of the stone industry is lack of proper planning of management to produce high-quality stone and according to the international standards. Therefore, management techniques should be used to improve the quality of products and solve the existing problem. Despite multiple tools, failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) is an effective tool in quality management. Therefore, in this study, at first, by using FMEA technique, failures in the stone industry in Iran have been identified, and the causes of each failure, and their effects and preventive and control measures of any failure are investigated. Finally, to achieve real results, the imposed costs related to any failure in the system have been calculated, and to prioritize failures instead of the use of risk priority number (RPN) is performed by using FMEA and data envelopment analysis (DEA). Somehow, the three factors of severity, occurrence, and detection of failures as inputs and cost as undesirable output are considered in this approach. The results of FMEA-DEA approach based on the cost, at Travertine and Marble processing industry, show the abilities of the proposed approach.

Status and Stones in the Casas Grandes Region: Analysis of Debitage from the 76 Draw Site (LA 156980)

There has been a shortage of studies of Medio period (A.D. 1200–1450) lithic assemblages, and even fewer of these have come from outside the immediate vicinity of Paquimé. Here I analyze thousands of flaked-stone artifacts from the 76 Draw Site in Luna County, New Mexico, in order to gain a more complete understanding of stone reduction practices during the Medio period, as well as the economic and social processes that governed stone reduction across the Medio period world. The data suggest that the inhabitants of 76 Draw reduced locally available material through generalized core reduction. Further, a comparison of the 76 Draw flaked-stone assemblage to several Medio period sites reflects the use of similar reduction strategies. Finally, a comparison of raw materials between Medio period sites reveals a disparity in access to high-quality stone, which may reflect trade, gifts, and/or migration from the periphery into Paquimé.

High-altitude adaptation and late Pleistocene foraging in the Bolivian Andes

The high Andes of South America were among the last environments that Homo sapiens colonized during its Pleistocene dispersion out of Africa. The peopling of this high-elevation environment was constrained by atmospheric hypoxia, cold stress, and resource availability. Here we report archaeological and geoarchaeological analyses from Cueva Bautista, a dry rock shelter, located at 3933m above sea level in southwestern Bolivia. We focus on a well-preserved occupation surface containing hearths and high-quality stone tools AMS dated to 12,700–12,100cal BP. Geoarchaeological resolution of the site supports its stratigraphic integrity and archaeological analyses indicate that the early human occupation was formed as a temporary camp by mobile foragers relying on a curated technological strategy. Regional paleoenvironmental reconstructions suggest that Cueva Bautista's occupation was synchronous with humid conditions and its abandonment with increased aridity. Our findings suggest that mobile hunter-gatherers explored – albeit not colonized – the high Andes during the late Pleistocene and provides further support that a combination of biological, behavioral, and environmental constraints affected human adaptation to this extreme environment.

Discovery of non-climacteric and suppressed climacteric bud sport mutations originating from a climacteric Japanese plum cultivar (Prunus salicina Lindl.).

Japanese plums are classified as climacteric; however, some economically important cultivars selected in California produce very little ethylene and require long ripening both “on” and “off” the tree to reach eating-ripe firmness. To unravel the ripening behavior of different Japanese plum cultivars, ripening was examined in the absence (air) or in the presence of ethylene or propylene (an ethylene analog) following a treatment or not with 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP, an ethylene action inhibitor). Detailed physiological studies revealed for the first time three distinct ripening types in plum fruit: climacteric, suppressed-climacteric, and non-climacteric. Responding to exogenous ethylene or propylene, the slow-softening supressed-climacteric cultivars produced detectable amounts of ethylene, in contrast to the novel non-climacteric cultivar that produced no ethylene and softened extremely slowly. Genetic analysis using microsatellite markers produced identical DNA profiles for the climacteric cultivars “Santa Rosa” and “July Santa Rosa,” the suppressed-climacteric cultivars “Late Santa Rosa,” “Casselman,” and “Roysum” and the novel non-climacteric “Sweet Miriam,” as expected since historic records present most of these cultivars as bud-sport mutations derived initially from “Santa Rosa.” This present study provides a novel fruit system to address the molecular basis of ripening and to develop markers that assist breeders in providing high-quality stone fruit cultivars that can remain “on-tree,” increasing fruit flavor, saving harvesting costs, and potentially reducing the need for low-temperature storage during postharvest handling.