High-quality Fuels Research Articles

A Review of Microwave Assisted Liquefaction of Lignin in Hydrogen Donor Solvents: Effect of Solvents and Catalysts

Lignin, a renewable source of aromatic chemicals in nature, has attracted increasing attention due to its structure and application prospect. Catalytic solvolysis has developed as a promising method for the production of value-added products from lignin. The liquefaction process is closely associated with heating methods, catalysts and solvents. Microwave assisted lignin liquefaction in hydrogen donor solvent with the presence of catalysts has been confirmed to be effective to promote the production of liquid fuels or fine chemicals. A great number of researchers should be greatly appreciated on account of their contributions on the progress of microwave technology in lignin liquefaction. In this study, microwave assisted liquefaction of lignin in a hydrogen donor solvent is extensively overviewed, concerning the effect of different solvents and catalysts. This review concludes that microwave assisted liquefaction is a promising technology for the valorization of lignin, which could reduce the reaction time, decrease the reaction temperature, and finally fulfill the utilization of lignin in a relatively mild condition. In the future, heterogeneous catalysts with high catalytic activity and stability need to be prepared to achieve the need for large-scale production of high-quality fuels and value-added chemicals from lignin.

Bamboo Fiber and Sugarcane Skin as a Bio-Briquette Fuel

The present study deals with the issue of bio-briquette fuel produced from specific agriculture residues, namely bamboo fiber (BF) and sugarcane skin (SCS). Both materials originated from Thừa Thiên Huế province in central Vietnam and were subjected to analysis of their suitability for such a purpose. A densification process using a high-pressure briquetting press proved its practicability for producing bio-briquette fuel. Analysis of fuel parameters exhibited a satisfactory level of all measured quality indicators: ash content Ac (BF—1.16%, SCS—8.62%) and net calorific value NCV (BF—16.92 MJ∙kg−1, SCS—17.23 MJ∙kg−1). Equally, mechanical quality indicators also proved satisfactory; bio-briquette samples’ mechanical durability DU occurred at an extremely high level (BF—97.80%, SCS—97.70%), as did their bulk density ρ (BF—986.37 kg·m−3, SCS—1067.08 kg·m−3). Overall evaluation of all observed results and factors influencing the investigated issue proved that both waste biomass materials, bamboo fiber and sugarcane skin, represent suitable feedstock materials for bio-briquette fuel production, and produced bio-briquette samples can be used as high-quality fuels.

Enhancement of aromatics production from catalytic pyrolysis of biomass over HZSM-5 modified by chemical liquid deposition

The catalytic pyrolysis of biomass is a promising technology for producing high-quality fuels and value-added chemicals. However, the development of this technology has been hindered by high coke formation and low target product yield. In this study, chemical liquid deposition (CLD) was adopted to improve the catalytic performance of HZSM-5 in the catalytic pyrolysis of biomass. The changes of the characteristics, including crystallographic structure, porosity and acidity, of the HZSM-5 zeolite after modification were analyzed by XRD, N2 adsorption-desorption, FTIR and NH3-TPD. The results showed that CLD modification reduced the mesopore volume, pore opening size and the number of external acid sites without changing the micropore structure. Py-GC/MS (a pyrolyzer equipped with a gas chromatography-mass spectrometer) and kinetic analysis were used to analyze the catalytic performance of the parent and CLD-modified zeolites. It was found that the production of aromatics increased first and later decreased, reaching optimal levels at a 4% deposition of SiO2, while the selectivity of monoaromatics increased continuously. Additionally, CLD modification raised the energy barriers for the char/coke formation reactions and could inhibit its production. The deposition amount of 4% showed the best char/coke inhibitory effects for catalytic pyrolysis of cellulose, while the char/coke formation decreased continuously with the increase of the deposited amount of SiO2 for catalytic pyrolysis of lignin.

4E analyses and multi-objective optimization of different fuels application for a large combined cycle power plant

Due to the growing increase in fuel price, a significant part of costs of power plants is expended on obtaining high-quality fuels. The change of fuel type from the natural gas to the liquid in the winter due to the increase in natural gas consumption is the main reason for this research. The goal is to select the appropriate fuel type from the Energy, Exergy, Exergy-economic, and Environmental (4E) aspects.The topic of this paper is an irreversible comparison of combined cycle power plant (CCPP) components by changing fuel type from natural gas to liquid fuels with different APIs. The costs resulting from the pollution of normalized air with fuel change were compared. The results were validated by the data from the largest CCPP in Iran. Multi-objective optimization of the CCPP was implemented by objective functions of the price of the power produced, exergy efficiency and normalized production amount of CO2. The results showed that decrease in API˚ led to proper exergy efficiency and cost but exposed very high environmental impacts compared with gas fuel. Results of changing objective functions demonstrated that propagation rate of CO2 in gas fuel was much lower than that of liquid fuel.

Light Cycle Oil Upgrading to High Quality Fuels and Petrochemicals: A Review

The processing of light cycle oil (LCO) for diesel fuel production by the hydrotreating (HDT) process is under general re-evaluation because of current stringent environmental regulations. The low-quality of LCO with high sulfur and nitrogen, and a high percentage of diaromatic hydrocarbons, limits the possible upgrading alternatives. A HDT step, involving hydrodesulfurization, hydrodenitrogenation, and partial hydrodearomatization, is combined with a hydrocracking (HYC) step for producing (1) high-quality fuels (high-octane gasoline and ultralow sulfur diesel) and a (2) benzene, toluene, and xylenes (BTX) enriched fraction. In this review studies regarding the HDT-HYC process for producing such products from real feedstocks are considered, with the aim to provide the state of the art developments for LCO upgrading.

Development of a Technology, Processing Carbon-containing Fine-grained Waste into High-quality Briquette Fuel

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Entrained flow gasification. Part 3: Insight into the injector near-field by Large Eddy Simulation with detailed chemistry

Entrained flow gasification is a promising process for the conversion of low-grade feedstock, e.g. highly viscous slurries and suspensions with a significant content of solid particles, to high quality fuels. A major scientific challenge is the prediction of the physical and chemical phenomena occurring in such high-temperature and high-pressure multiphase flow systems. In this context, this article is the sequel to “Entrained flow gasification. Part 1: Gasification of glycol in an atmospheric-pressure experimental rig ” [1] and “Entrained flow gasification. Part 2: Mathematical modeling of the gasifier using RANS method ” [2]. The same strategy as in the first two parts was followed. In order to reduce complexity, this study focused on a two-phase (gas and liquid) flow system with a model fuel (mono-ethylene glycol) under the simplified conditions provided by the atmospheric lab-scale gasifier REGA. Using the experimental data set provided in Part 1 of the coordinated papers for validation purposes, the main focus of this study was on the detailed understanding of the near injector region of the entrained flow gasifier REGA. The unsteady flow and the chemical conversion in the gasifier were investigated by means of Large Eddy Simulations with a detailed chemistry solver including 44 individual species and a direct calculation of 329 chemical reactions. The dispersed phase was solved by Lagrangian Particle Tracking. Downstream comparisons with experimental data showed a reasonable agreement concerning temperature and species profiles. The analysis of the injector near-field revealed that the high temperature reaction zone close to the injector could not be explained by a direct reaction of the fuel with the oxidizer. Instead, carbon monoxide and hydrogen mainly formed on the axis were transported upstream by the recirculation zone. The reaction of CO and H2 with the oxygen stabilized the flame. The heat release from this reactions supported the vaporization and decomposition of fuel as well as the downstream gasification reactions.

High-Quality Fuel from the Upgrading of Heavy Bio-oil by the Combination of Ultrasonic Treatment and Mutual Solvent

The industry application of bio-oil has been constrained due to its poor fuel properties. Ethyl acetate, acetone, n-octanol, and polyethylene glycol 400 as mutual solvents as well as ultrasonic treatment were employed to improve the chemical and physical properties of heavy bio-oil. When the ratio of n-octanol to heavy bio-oil was 3:1, ultrasonic power was 150 W, and exposure time was 12 min, the viscosity (40 °C) of heavy bio-oil decreased from 1244.60 to 6.05 mm2·s–1, the heat value increased to 41.02 MJ·kg–1, and the pH increased to 6.23. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) results showed that no change is obvious in the TG curve for some of the blends after 60 days. Moreover, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) effectively verified that some of the blends were stable after 60 days and some were not, but no stratification was observed. FT-IR and TGA are fast and easy tools to examine the stability and homogeneity of the blends.

Production of hydrocarbon fuels from heavy fraction of bio-oil through hydrodeoxygenative upgrading with Ru-based catalyst

Heavy fraction of bio-oil, the bottom-layer of biomass fast pyrolysis oil, is hard to be directly used due to its high molecular weight, complex components and deteriorate thermal stability. Here, a novel catalytic hydrotreating process for the heavy fraction of bio-oil, including depolymerization, decarboxylation, decarbonylation, hydrogenation and hydrodeoxygenation (HDO), is proposed with Ru/α-Al2O3 catalyst and super/subcritical ethanol. Results demonstrated that heavy fraction of bio-oil was depolymerized into monomeric phenolic compounds, and then was converted to hydrocarbons by hydrodeoxygenation in one-pot. The average molecular weight (Mw) of upgraded oil decreased drastically from 8941 g/mol to 937 g/mol during the catalytic hydrotreating process, and the formation of coke is suppressed. Under the optimal conditions, the total yield of hydrocarbons, which were comprised of alkyl-substituted cyclohexane and alkyl-substituted benzene, could be up to 23.15%. These hydrocarbons have a high octane number, would be the desirable components for fungible liquid transportation fuel. Furthermore, Ru/α-Al2O3 catalyst can be regenerated by calcination in the presence of O2. These results indicated high quality fuels could be obtained from heavy fraction of bio-oil over suitable catalytic system.

Production of Low-Freezing-Point Highly Branched Alkanes through Michael Addition.

A new approach for the production of low-freezing-point, high-quality fuels from lignocellulose-derived molecules was developed with Michael addition as the key step. Among the investigated catalysts, CoCl2 ⋅6 H2 O was found most active for the Michael addition of 2,4-pentanedione with FA (single aldol adduct of furfural and acetone, 4-(2-furanyl)-3-butene-2-one). Over CoCl2 ⋅6 H2 O, a high carbon yield of C13 oxygenates (about 75 %) can be achieved under mild conditions (353 K, 20 h). After hydrodeoxygenation, low-freezing-point (<223 K) branched alkanes with 13 carbons within jet fuel ranges were obtained over a Pd/NbOPO4 catalyst. Furthermore, C18,23 fuel precursors could be easily synthesized through Michael addition of 2,4-pentanedione with DFA (double-condensation product of furfural and acetone) under mild conditions and the molar ratio of C18 /C23 is dependent on the reaction conditions of Michael addition. After hydrodeoxygenation, high density (0.8415 g mL-1 ) and low-freezing-point (<223 K) branched alkanes with 18, 23 carbons within lubricant range were also obtained over a Pd/NbOPO4 catalyst. These highly branched alkanes can be directly used as transportation fuels or additives. This work opens a new strategy for the synthesis of highly branched alkanes with low freezing point from renewable biomass.

Propane dehydrogenation: producers are addressing the propylene deficit

As environmental policies drive to increase the renewables participation in the transportation sector, biomass-derived fuels are becoming an attractive alternative to replace, totally or partially, fossil ones. Taking into account the sustainability concerns about first generation biofuels, attention is paid to second generation ones. Their main drawbacks are the high CAPEX and OPEX required if high quality fuels are required as final product due to the current deployment of its technology. In this way, co-processing of biomass-derived feedstocks in oil refineries can be a good solution and can pave the way for the introduction of biofuels in the market, since it reduces environmental impacts from fossil fuels, decreases the oil dependency of countries and, the most important one, takes advantage of existing facilities avoiding the erection of new plants. In this work, the co-processing of hydrodeoxigenated pyrolysis oil (HDO-oil, from lignocellulosic biomass) with vacuum gas oil (VGO) in a FCC unit is modelled and implemented in a calculation block in MS Excel inside Aspen Plus®. 40 pseudocomponents and 10 real components are defined to represent both feedstocks and their possible cracking products. These components are used in a pseudoreaction mechanism of more than 12,000 single reactions, developed from a probabilistic reaction system. Such a large number of reactions is handled by considering key parameters for the estimation of each reaction rate constant and integrated along the riser which is modelled using a finite volume method. Tuning parameters are used to fit the model depending on the feedstock and the riser conditions, and have to be estimated using experimental data. Thereby, the kinetic reactor model allows to work with different feedstocks and conditions. Material, heat and hydrodynamic balances are performed in all volume elements of the modelled riser reactor, which results in a composition and temperature profiles along the riser. The model is validated with experimental data, showing a low relative error. Therefore, this model can be used to predict product yields, according to different feedstocks and experimental conditions.

Continuous low pressure decarboxylation of fatty acids to fuel-range hydrocarbons with in situ hydrogen production

Fatty acids are considered as a renewable feedstock for the production of high value products such as fuel-range hydrocarbons. Decarboxylation can produce high quality fuels from fatty acids, although either high pressure or additional hydrogen is required. This study investigated a low pressure (<500psi) continuous decarboxylation process examining oleic acid in a continuous fixed bed reactor using activated carbon, which gave surprisingly high quality fuel-like hydrocarbons with no external hydrogen. The results showed that activated carbon performed as a catalyst for both decarboxylation and in situ hydrogen production. The reaction parameters for maximum degree of decarboxylation (91%) was found to be 400°C, 2h and water-to-oleic acid ratio of 4:1. To determine the degree of decarboxylation and reaction mechanism, the formed liquid products were examined by ATR-FTIR, Raman and GC-FID analysis, respectively. The liquid product was found to consist of mainly saturated hydrocarbons containing heptadecane (89.3% selectivity) as the major compound. The liquid product was found to have a similar density and higher heating value (HHV) to commercial diesel and jet fuel. The mechanism for decarboxylation reaction along with in situ hydrogen formation was proposed in this study.

Project development laboratories energy fuels and oils based on NRU “MPEI”

In the process of improving the efficiency of power plants a hot topic is the use of high-quality fuels and lubricants. In the process of transportation, preparation for use, storage and maintenance of the properties of fuels and lubricants may deteriorate, which entails a reduction in the efficiency of power plants. One of the ways to prevent the deterioration of the properties is a timely analysis of the relevant laboratories. In this day, the existence of laboratories of energy fuels and energy laboratory oil at thermal power stations is satisfactory character. However, the training of qualified personnel to work in these laboratories is a serious problem, as the lack of opportunities in these laboratories a complete list of required tests. The solution to this problem is to explore the possibility of application of methods of analysis of the properties of fuels and lubricants in the stage of training and re-training of qualified personnel. In this regard, on the basis of MPEI developed laboratory projects of solid, liquid and gaseous fuels, power and energy oils and lubricants. Projects allow for a complete list of tests required for the timely control of properties and prevent the deterioration of these properties. Assess the financial component of the implementation of the developed projects based on the use of modern equipment used for tests. Projects allow for a complete list of tests required for the timely control of properties and prevent the deterioration of these properties.

Hydrogen Bubble Templated Electrodeposited Cu As CO2 Reduction Catalyst: Substrate Effect

Selective conversion of CO2 into high quality chemical feedstock and fuels represents an emerging energy storage technology1. The electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide using renewable sources of energy is a promising way of utilizing the only intermittently available renewable energies to produce chemical feedstocks and fuels for later use. Presently, copper is the one metal in focus because of its ability to catalyze CO2 reduction towards energy-dense hydrocarbon products. However, the electrochemical reduction of CO2 on copper results in many different products at a wide range of overpotentials. The selectivity and efficiency of the Cu-based catalysts towards specific products can be improved by fine tuning the structure and composition2-4. In this work, high surface area porous Cu films were electrodeposited either on Cu or Pt substrates at various deposition currents and durations using the dynamic hydrogen bubble template method5. During electrodeposition at high current values, the size and residence time of H2 bubbles vary based on the substrate and on the in-situ deposited Cu, leading to significantly different catalyst morphologies. Consequently, well-defined dendritic structures with large pores are observed (inset of Fig. 1) for Cu deposited on Cu substrate (CuCat/Cu) as compared to Cu deposited on Pt substrate (CuCat/Pt). Interestingly, product quantification by gas chromatography during electrochemical measurements showed that the product selectivity observed for all variations of the catalysts deposited on a particular substrate does not depend significantly on the differences in pore size and film thickness of the material. However there is a difference in product selectivity for the respective catalysts deposited on different substrates as represented in Fig. 1, where ethylene and carbon-monoxide selectivities are shown at two different potentials. The formation of methane is significantly suppressed (<1%) on both substrates in the potential range where the catalysts show high selectivity for ethylene. From X-ray absorption measurements it is observed that the catalysts are composed of metallic Cu and CuI 2O species with no evidence of CuIIO species. The morphological changes, atomic state and composition of the catalyst may have a dialectic role in deciding the selectivity. In the follow-up work, the selectivity of various Cu films electrodeposited on both the substrates will be correlated with respect to surface area and CuI 2O content after comprehensive quantification of the gaseous and liquid reaction products by gas chromatography, liquid gas chromatography and HPLC. These studies are expected to reveal strategies by which catalysts can be designed for higher selectivity towards a specific hydrocarbon product. References M. Gattrell, N. Gupta and A. Co, J. Electroanal. Chem., 594, 1 (2006). 2. A. Dutta, M. Rahaman, N. C. Luedi, M. Mohos and P. Broekmann, ACS Catal. 6, 3804 (2016).H. Mistry, A. S. Varela, C. S. Bonifacio, I. Zegkinoglou, I. Sinev, et. al, Nat. Commun., 7, 12123 (2016).A. S. Varela, C. Schlaup, Z. P. Jovanov, P. Malacrida, S. Horch, et. al, J. Phys. Chem. C, 117, 20500 (2013).H. -C. Shin, J. Dong and M. Liu, Adv. Mater ., 15, 1610 (2003). Figure 1

Optimum Utilization of Biochemical Components in Chlorella sp. KR1 via Subcritical Hydrothermal Liquefaction

Product distributions in bio-crude, aqueous phase, and solid residue were rigorously analyzed during the hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) of Chlorella sp. KR1 in order to optimize utilization of energy and chemicals. A non-asphaltene (paraffinic) fraction in the bio-crude, which can be readily upgraded to high-quality fuels via a subsequent catalytic process, was mainly produced due to lipid extraction. Above 170 °C, lipid extraction was almost complete, and hence, the non-asphaltene content did not increase further with increasing temperature. Carbohydrates could be extracted, mainly as polysaccharides, in the aqueous phase at mild temperatures (<200 °C). At high temperatures (>200 °C), they decompose and react with proteins via the Maillard reaction to form asphaltene (polycyclic aromatics), which contains large amounts of heteroatoms such as N and S. Although high-temperature carbohydrate conversion could yield more bio-crude with high energy values, it dominantly contributed to formation of the asphaltene fraction, which is difficult to upgrade catalytically. As high-temperature HTL requires a large energy input, the recovery and utilization of intact carbohydrates and proteins at mild temperatures (<200 °C) appears to be more promising. Energy Return on Investment (EROI) analysis also showed that 170 °C is the optimum HTL temperature for maximizing the energy production.

Modelling of co-processing of HDO-oil with VGO in a FCC unit

As environmental policies drive to increase the renewables participation in the transportation sector, biomass-derived fuels are becoming an attractive alternative to replace, totally or partially, fossil ones. Taking into account the sustainability concerns about first generation biofuels, attention is paid to second generation ones. Their main drawbacks are the high CAPEX and OPEX required if high quality fuels are required as final product due to the current deployment of its technology. In this way, co-processing of biomass-derived feedstocks in oil refineries can be a good solution and can pave the way for the introduction of biofuels in the market, since it reduces environmental impacts from fossil fuels, decreases the oil dependency of countries and, the most important one, takes advantage of existing facilities avoiding the erection of new plants. In this work, the co-processing of hydrodeoxigenated pyrolysis oil (HDO-oil, from lignocellulosic biomass) with vacuum gas oil (VGO) in a FCC unit is modelled and implemented in a calculation block in MS Excel inside Aspen Plus®. 40 pseudocomponents and 10 real components are defined to represent both feedstocks and their possible cracking products. These components are used in a pseudoreaction mechanism of more than 12,000 single reactions, developed from a probabilistic reaction system. Such a large number of reactions is handled by considering key parameters for the estimation of each reaction rate constant and integrated along the riser which is modelled using a finite volume method. Tuning parameters are used to fit the model depending on the feedstock and the riser conditions, and have to be estimated using experimental data. Thereby, the kinetic reactor model allows to work with different feedstocks and conditions. Material, heat and hydrodynamic balances are performed in all volume elements of the modelled riser reactor, which results in a composition and temperature profiles along the riser. The model is validated with experimental data, showing a low relative error. Therefore, this model can be used to predict product yields, according to different feedstocks and experimental conditions.

Pyrolysis of poppy capsule pulp for bio-oil production.

The feasibility of biofuel production via the pyrolysis of poppy capsule pulp, the main waste product of Afyon Alkoloid Factory, was investigated. The poppy capsule pulp was shown to have a high volatile matter content (ca. 76%). Pyrolysis experiments were carried out in the temperature range 400-550°C (heating rate 18°C min-1 and holding time 20 min) under a nitrogen atmosphere. The chemical components of the bio-oil were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectrometry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The effects of pyrolysis temperature on the production efficiency and the calorific value of the bio-oil were investigated. The maximum bio-oil yield and its calorific value at 500°C were 23.6% and 31.6 MJ kg-1, respectively. The latter value is close to that of many petroleum fractions. This high-energy bio-oil is therefore a clean fuel precursor and can be upgraded into higher quality fuels.

Kinetic modeling of five sustainable energy crops as potential sources of bioenergy

ABSTRACTFive energy plants from different regions of the world were pyrolyzed by non-isothermal thermogravimetry and effluent gases were detected through a mass spectrometer. Thermal decomposition characteristics, quantification of emissions, reactivity, and process kinetics were determined. Among the fuels tested, miscanthus was the most reactive, while jatropha was more heterogeneous. A first-order parallel reactions model fitted the experimental results with great accuracy. Miscanthus and willow can be characterized as high-quality fuels and produced higher amounts of carbon oxides and lighter hydrocarbons at lower temperatures. For jatropha, cardoon, and sunflower co-gasification or co-firing is suggested, in order to avoid nitrogenous emissions.

Modern Hydroprocesses for Synthesis of High-Quality Low-Viscous Marine Fuels

Main physicochemical and performance characteristics of Middle distillate fractions of hydrocatalytic and thermodestructive processes of one of Russian refineries – potential components of low-viscosity marine fuels (LMF) with improved ecological and low-temperature properties – were studied to characterize their physicochemical and operation parameters. A laboratory flow setup with the industrial nickel-molybdenum catalyst loaded in it was used for achieving hydrocracking of vacuum gasoils (Tebp ranged from 500 to 580 °C) at 340–380 °C and 15,0 MPa. The highest yield of the light hydrocracking gasoil (LHCG) was observed upon processing of the vacuum gasoil (Tebp 350–500 °C) at 360 °C, the highest cetane index (53) and the lowest sulfur content (7 ppm) being characteristic of the obtained LHCG. With heavier vacuum gasoil, the total yields of target distillates and, individually, of LHCG decrease. The physicochemical and operation parameters of obtained LHGC make then qualitative components of LMF. Comparative properties of the hydrotreated straight-run diesel fraction, light gasoils obtained by catalytic cracking, slow coking and the promising hydrocracking process were analyzed. Dependencies of physicochemical, ecological and main operation properties of the middle distillate fractions of secondary processes on the hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon composition and on the contents of key components were established. The obtained dependencies were used to make recommendations on the production of optimal low-viscous marine fuel with improved ecological and low-temperature properties.

Kinetic Modeling of the Hydrotreating and Hydrocracking Stages for Upgrading Scrap Tires Pyrolysis Oil (STPO) toward High-Quality Fuels

The upgrading of scrap tires pyrolysis oil (STPO) has been studied in order to produce high-quality alternative fuels, conceived as the second and third stage of an industrially orientated valorization pathway for tires: pyrolysis, hydrotreating, and hydrocracking. The experiments have been carried out in a fixed-bed reactor under the following experimental conditions: (i) for hydrotreating: NiMo/Al2O3 catalyst; time on stream (TOS), 0–8 h; 300–375 °C; 65 bar; H2:oil ratio, 1000 (v/v); space time, 0–0.5 gcat h gfeed–1; and (ii) for hydrocracking: PtPd/SiO2–Al2O3 catalyst; TOS, 0–6 h; 440–500 °C; 65 bar; space time, 0–0.28 gcat h gfeed–1; H2:oil ratio, 1000 (v/v). From the results, lump-based kinetic models have been established for both stages, considering the reactions of (i) hydrodesulfurization (HDS), (ii) hydrocracking (HC), and (iii) hydrodearomatization (HDA) in each one of them. Catalyst deactivation is insignificant in the hydrotreating stage but important for the hydrocracking stage. Therefore, d...