High-value Products Research Articles

Optimizing Phaeodactylum tricornutum cultivation: integrated strategies for enhancing biomass, lipid, and fucoxanthin production

BackgroundPhaeodactylum tricornutum is a versatile marine microalga renowned for its high-value metabolite production, including omega-3 fatty acids and fucoxanthin, with emerging potential for integrated biorefinery approaches that encompass biofuel and bioproduct generation. Therefore, in this study we aimed to optimize the cultivation conditions for boosting biomass, lipid, and fucoxanthin production in P. tricornutum, focusing on the impacts of different nutrient ratios (nitrogen, phosphorus, silicate), glycerol supplementation, and light regimes.ResultsOptimized medium (− 50%N%, + 50% P, Zero-Si, 2 g glycerol) under low-intensity blue light (100 μmol m⁻2 s⁻1) improved biomass to 1.6 g L⁻1, with lipid productivity reaching 539.25 mg g⁻1, while fucoxanthin increased to 20.44 mg g−1. Total saturated fatty acid (ΣSFA) content in the optimized culture increased approximately 2.4-fold compared to the control F/2 medium. This change in fatty acid composition led to improved biodiesel properties, including a higher cetane number (59.18 vs. 56.04) and lower iodine value (53.96 vs 88.99 g I2/100 g oil). The optimized conditions also altered the biodiesel characteristics, such as kinematic viscosity, cloud point, and higher heating value.ConclusionOur optimization approach reveals the significant potential of P. tricornutum as a versatile microbial platform for biomass, lipid, and fucoxanthin production. The tailored cultivation strategy successfully enhanced biomass and lipid accumulation, with notable improvements in biodiesel properties through strategic nutrient and light regime manipulation. These findings demonstrate the critical role of precise cultivation conditions in optimizing microalgal metabolic performance for biotechnological applications.

From waste to value: protein hydrolysates from byproducts of the Argentine hake (Merluccius hubbsi) processing using endogenous enzymes and Alcalase® 2.4L

The valorization of fishery byproducts is essential to reduce waste and create high-value products. Waste from Argentine hake (Merluccius hubbsi) could enhance its functional and antioxidant properties through hydrolysis, releasing peptides with bioactive properties. Protein hydrolysates of Argentine hake were produced through autolysis (Aut) and enzymatic hydrolysis using Alcalase® 2.4L at concentrations of 0.24% and 2% (v/v) (Alc-0.24 and Alc-2), respectively, over 150 min. Alkaline peptidase activity, degree of hydrolysis, and antioxidant activity were assessed using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2’-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) radical ABTS·+ scavenging assays. All hydrolysates retained alkaline peptidase activity throughout the process. Alcalase-treated hydrolysates exhibited significantly higher peptidase activity and hydrolysis degree compared to autolysis. At 60 min, Alc-0.24 reached peptidase activity levels similar to Alc-2, and by 30 min, both had comparable degrees of hydrolysis. ABTS·+ scavenging activity increased over time for Alc-0.24, with both Alcalase® 2.4L concentrations outperforming autolysis. No significant differences were found between Alc-0.24 and Alc-2. Although all hydrolysates showed DPPH scavenging activity, no significant differences were detected between treatments or reaction times. These findings highlight the potential for producing value-added protein hydrolysates from Argentine hake waste.

Recovery strategies for EoL solar panels: sustainable and circular economy practices

The rapid expansion of solar PV technology highlights the need for sustainable End-of-Life (EoL) management to address resource scarcity and environmental sustainability. This study, aligned with SDG 7 and SDG 12, proposes an integrated EoL recycling approach combining thermal, chemical, and green methods to maximize material recovery while minimizing environmental impact. Thermal treatment delaminates panels, preserving silicon wafers and glass, followed by eco-friendly chemical treatments to recover metals like silver and aluminum. This method achieves high-purity material recovery for reuse in solar panel manufacturing and high-value products. By overcoming limitations of traditional methods and incorporating green solvents, it supports circular economy principles and offers cost-effective solutions for global solar panel waste management. Future research should focus on industrial scalability and economic feasibility to advance solar energy’s role in sustainable development.

High-performance and promising biolubricants from agro-waste cashew nut shell liquid

Purpose This study aims to replace petroleum-based lubricating oils with sustainable biomaterials, addressing issues associated with existing alternatives, such as poor performance, high cost and limited availability. Design/methodology/approach The transformation of agricultural waste cardanol, a nonedible vegetable oil that is abundantly available, into green cardanyl acetate (CA) biolubricating ester oil. The potential of CA as a base stock for lubricants is validated by assessing its lubrication performance. Findings CA exhibited a higher viscosity index, flash point and thermal stability than commercially available mineral-based (CTL3, coal-to-liquid) and synthetic (PAO2, poly-alpha-olefin) lubricant base stocks. Moreover, CA exhibits excellent anticorrosivity properties as well as PAO2 and CTL3. The tribological properties of CA were evaluated, and the results show that CA exhibits a smaller average wear scar diameter (WSD) of 0.54 mm than that of PAO2 (0.85 mm) and CTL3 (0.90 mm). In extreme pressure tests, acylated CA demonstrated the highest last nonseizure load capacity at 510 N, outperforming commercial CTL3 (491 N) and PAO2 (412 N). All results demonstrate that CA displays an excellent series of base stock properties. Originality/value The novelty of this work lies in the utilization of renewable agricultural waste, cashew nut shell liquid, to produce a high-value biolubricant as an alternative to commercial fossil-based lubricants. The renewable nature, low cost, and large-scale availability of raw materials pave a new path for the production and application of biolubricants, showcasing the immense potential of converting agricultural waste into high-value products. Peer review The peer review history for this article is available at: https://publons.com/publon/10.1108/ILT-03-2024-0064/

Born of frustration: the emergence of Camelina sativa as a platform for lipid biotechnology.

The emerging crop Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz (camelina) is a Brassicaceae oilseed with a rapidly growing reputation for the deployment of advanced lipid biotechnology and metabolic engineering. Camelina is recognised by agronomists for its traits including yield, oil/protein content, drought tolerance, limited input requirements, plasticity and resilience. Its utility as a platform for metabolic engineering was then quickly recognised, and biotechnologists have benefited from its short life cycle and facile genetic transformation, producing numerous transgenic interventions to modify seed lipid content and generate novel products. The desire to work with a plant that is both a model and crop has driven the expansion of research resources for camelina, including increased availability of genome and other "-omics" data sets. Collectively the expansion of these resources has established camelina as an ideal plant to study the regulation of lipid metabolism and genetic improvement. Furthermore, the unique characteristics of camelina enables the design-build-test-learn cycle to be transitioned from the controlled environment to the field. Complex metabolic engineering to synthesize and accumulate high levels of novel fatty acids and modified oils in seeds, can be deployed, tested and undergo rounds of iteration in agronomically relevant environments. Engineered camelina oils are now increasingly being developed and used to sustainably supply, improved nutrition, feed, biofuels and fossil fuel replacements for high-value chemical products. In this review, we provide a summary of seed fatty acid synthesis and oil assembly in camelina, highlighting how discovery research in camelina supports the advance of metabolic engineering towards the predictive manipulation of metabolism to produce desirable bio-based products. Further examples of innovation in camelina seed lipid engineering and crop improvement are then provided, describing how technologies (e.g., genetic modification (GM), gene editing (GE), RNAi, alongside GM and GE stacking) can be applied to produce new products and denude undesirable traits. Focusing on the production of long chain polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids in camelina, we describe how lipid biotechnology can transition from discovery to a commercial prototype. The prospects to produce structured triacylglycerol with fatty acids in specified stereospecific positions are also discussed, alongside the future outlook for the agronomic uptake of camelina lipid biotechnology.

Biotechnological techniques in the production of plant-made pharmaceuticals

Plants produce a wide variety of secondary metabolites, many of which have complex structures. Wild and cultivated plants currently remain the primary sources of most pharmaceutically significant secondary metabolites. However, the production of these compounds in plants is limited by the capacity of their biosynthetic pathways. This limitation has prompted efforts to develop methods to increase the yield of desired secondary metabolites. Advances in "omic" techniques have accelerated the development of approaches that utilize plants as bio-factories to produce these valuable compounds. This review provides an overview of strategies for producing high-value plant products and using plants as heterologous hosts to produce foreign recombinant proteins for medical applications.

Boosting Amino Acid Synthesis with WOx Sub-Nanoclusters.

The conversion of nitrate-rich wastewater and biomass-derived blocks into high-value products using renewably generated electricity is a promising approach to modulate the artificial carbon and nitrogen cycle. Here, a new synthetic strategy of WOx sub-nanoclusters is reported and supported on carbon materials as novel efficient electrocatalysts for nitrate reduction and its coupling with α-keto acids. In acidic solutions, the NH3-NH2OH selectivity can also optimized by adjusting the potential, with the total FE exceeding 80% over a wide potential range. After introducing α-keto acids, the WOx/D-CB electrode achieves remarkable activity and selectivity toward C2-C6 amino acids. For glycine and alanine, impressive FEs of 49.34% and 38.22% based on transitional metal oxides can be obtained, surpassing those of WOx nanoclusters with larger size. In situ analysis and mechanistic studies reveal the critical role of WOx sub-nanoclusters in reducing the energy barriers of key steps in alanine synthesis. This work opens up new insights into the rational design of cluster catalysts to promote electrochemical amino acid synthesis.

Protein Engineering of Substrate Specificity toward Nitrilases: Strategies and Challenges.

Nitrilase is extensively applied across diverse sectors owing to its unique catalytic properties. Nevertheless, in industrial production, nitrilases often face issues such as low catalytic efficiency, limited substrate range, suboptimal selectivity, and side reaction products, which have garnered heightened attention. With the widespread recognition that the structure of enzymes has a direct impact on their catalytic properties, an increasing number of researchers are beginning to optimize the functional characteristics of nitrilases by modifying their structures, in order to meet specific industrial or biotechnology application needs. Particularly in the artificial intelligence era, the innovative application of computer-aided design in enzyme engineering offers remarkable opportunities to tailor nitrilases for the widespread production of high-value products. In this discussion, we will briefly examine the structural mechanism of nitrilase. An overview of the protein engineering strategies of substrate preference, regioselectivity and stereoselectivity are explored combined with some representative examples recently in terms of the substrate specificity of enzyme. The future research trends in this field are also prospected.

Redefining the product portfolio of oilcane bagasse biorefinery: Recovering natural colorants, vegetative lipids and sugars.

Bioenergy crops have been known for their ability to produce biofuels and bioproducts. In this study, the product portfolio of recently developed transgenic sugarcane (oilcane) bagasse has been redefined for recovering natural pigments (anthocyanins), sugars, and vegetative lipids.The total anthocyanin content in oilcane bagasse has been estimated as 92.9±18.9µg/g of dried bagasse with cyanidin-3-glucoside (13.5±18.9µg per g of dried bagasse) as the most prominent anthocyanin present. More than 85% (w/w) of the total anthocyanins were recovered from oilcane bagasse at a pretreatment temperature of 150°C for 15min. These conditions for the hydrothermal pretreatment also led to a 2-fold increase in the glucose yield upon the enzymatic saccharification of the pretreated bagasse. Further, a 1.5-fold enrichment of the vegetative lipids was demonstrated in the pretreated residue.Re-defining green biorefineries with multiple high-value products in a zero-waste approach is the need of the hour for attaining sustainability.

Rapid electrothermal upcycling hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD) polluted distillation residue into turbostratic graphene for enhanced electromagnetic wave absorption.

The trichloroethylene production industry generates high-boiling-point solid residues during rectification, which contain high concentrations of chlorinated contaminants, particularly hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD). Traditionally, these distillation residues are managed through co-incineration or landfilling, leading to environmental and economic challenges. In this study, we present a rapid and environmentally friendly electrothermal approach for both detoxifying and upcycling distillation residue into graphene-based electromagnetic wave (EMW) absorbing materials. By employing a DC power pulse discharge with a 10 s duration, we achieved over 99 % HCBD degradation efficiency. Characterization results indicate that the thermal shock transforms the distillation residue into high-value turbostratic pulse graphene (tPG). This tPG, featuring a unique structure, demonstrates substantial potential as an EMW absorber, with an effective absorption bandwidth of 3.9 GHz and a reflection loss of -42.0 dB at a minimal matching thickness of 1.6 mm. The method offers a sustainable, cost-effective solution for hazardous waste management, combining rapid processing with high-value material production.

Sustainable Valorization of Rice Straw into Biochar and Carbon Dots Using a Novel One-Pot Approach for Dual Applications in Detection and Removal of Lead Ions.

Lead (Pb) is a highly toxic heavy metal that causes significant health hazards and environmental damage. Thus, the detection and removal of Pb2+ ions in freshwater sources are imperative for safeguarding public health and the environment. Moreover, the transformation of single resources into multiple high-value products is vital for achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs). In this regard, the present work focused on the preparation of two efficient materials, i.e., biochar (R-BC) and carbon dots (R-CDs) from a single resource (rice straw), via a novel approach by using extraction and hydrothermal process. The various microscopic and spectroscopy techniques confirmed the formation of porous structure and spherical morphology of R-BC and R-CDs, respectively. FTIR analysis confirmed the presence of hydroxyl (-OH), carboxyl (-COO) and amine (N-H) groups on the R-CDs' surface. The obtained blue luminescent R-CDs were employed as chemosensors for the detection of Pb2+ ions. The sensor exhibited a strong linear correlation over a concentration range of 1 µM to 100 µM, with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.11 µM. Furthermore, the BET analysis of R-BC indicated a surface area of 1.71 m2/g and a monolayer volume of 0.0081 cm3/g, supporting its adsorption potential for Pb2+. The R-BC showed excellent removal efficiency of 77.61%. The adsorption process followed the Langmuir isotherm model and second-order kinetics. Therefore, the dual use of rice straw-derived provides a cost-effective, environmentally friendly solution for Pb2+ detection and remediation to accomplish the SDGs.

Screened Ni3 single-cluster catalyst supported on graphidyne for high-performance electrocatalytic NO reduction to NH3: A computational study.

Electrocatalytic NO reduction (NORR) to NH3 represents a promising approach for converting hazardous NO waste gases into high-value NH3 products under ambient conditions. However, exploring stable, low-cost, and highly efficient catalysts to enhance the NO-to-NH3 conversion process remains a significant challenge. Herein, through systematic computational studies based on density functional theory (DFT), we rationally designed transition metal triatomic cluster supported on graphdiyne (TM3/GDY) as potential single-cluster catalysts for high-performance NORR. The results indicated that the GDY support is incredibly effective at immobilizing these triatomic metal clusters, preventing metal aggregation and dissolution. Furthermore, the TM3/GDY systems exhibit tunable reactivity for NO activation due to the synergistic effect of triple-metal sites. Among all examined candidates, Ni3/GDY demonstrates the highest NORR catalytic performance with a record low limiting potential of -0.05V. Notably, NO adsorption strength was identified as an effective descriptor to rationalize the NORR activity trend, which is highly dependent on the amount of the carrying charges on the anchored TM3 clusters. Additionally, the hydrogenation steps during NORR are kinetically feasible on Ni3/GDY with a small kinetic barrier of 0.34V for the rate-determining step, corresponding to an outstanding turnover frequency (3.03×10-25)s-1 per site at 300K for NH3 generation, implying an ultra-fast reaction rate. Our work not only identified promising NORR catalysts but also provided valuable insights for rationally designing atomically precise novel catalysts for the resource utilization of small molecules.

Microalgal-bacterial biofilms enhance pollutant removal coupling with eicosapentaenoic acid production in high-concentration ammonia‑nitrogen wastewater.

Microalgal-bacterial biofilms have emerged as a promising approach for wastewater treatment. However, its potential to treat high-concentration ammonia‑nitrogen wastewater coupling with high-value fatty acid production remains unclear. Therefore, this study explored the efficiency of a microalgal-bacterial biofilm in treating high-concentration ammonia‑nitrogen wastewater and its ability to produce high-value fatty acids, with the activated sludge (bacteria) and microalgal-bacterial suspension as control. The results indicated that pollutant removal in the microalgal-bacterial biofilm system was the most efficient, with a 98.3% removal efficiency for chemical oxygen demand, 87.46% for ammonium nitrogen, and 20.6% for phosphate. Coupling analysis of microbial community shift and nitrogen conversion genes showed that the relative abundance of Rhodanobacter and Nitrosomonas significantly increased in microalgal-bacterial biofilms, and the expression of nitrification-related genes (amo and hao) and denitrification-related genes (nasA,napA, narI, narV, nirK, and norB) increased compared to the control systems, which played an important role in nitrogen removal. The microalgal-bacterial biofilm system exhibited higher levels of fatty acid synthase and omega-6 fatty acid desaturation, resulting in a dry weight content and production of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) with 15.8,19.1 times greater than that achieved by the microalgal suspension system. These results present a foundation for application of pollutant removal in high ammonia nitrogen wastewater coupling with high-value acid production by microalgal-bacterial biofilms.

A review on techno-economic analysis of lignocellulosic biorefinery producing biofuels and high-value products

A review on techno-economic analysis of lignocellulosic biorefinery producing biofuels and high-value products

Selective photocatalytic glucaric acid production from TEMPO-mediated glucose oxidation on alkalized carbon nitride

Biomass photorefining is a promising approach for sustainable clean energy and high-value chemical production. However, selectively converting glucose into glucaric acid, the most valuable derivative, still poses a significant challenge due to the difficulty in transforming the terminal hydroxyl group into a carboxy group. Here, we demonstrate that highly selective glucose photorefining into glucaric acid can be achieved by synergistically coupling alkalizing modification of polymeric carbon nitride (CN) with 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPO) mediation, which promotes the oxidation of the primary alcohol group attached to the C6 site of gluconic acid. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations affirm the enhanced performance of modified CN in glucaric acid production. When medicated with TEMPO, the optimized photocatalysis achieves ~100% glucose conversion and >30% glucaric acid yield, setting a record for photocatalytic glucaric acid production. This work showcases the significance of combining photocatalyst modification and redox mediation for inspiring high-efficiency photocatalysis systems for biomass photorefining.

Screening and engineering of lycopene-producing strain Rhodococcus jostii for bio-upcycling of poly(ethylene terephthalate) waste.

Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) is a widely used plastic, but its improper disposal has caused serious environmental pollution. The development of bioconversion for PET waste into high-value chemicals has gained significant attention as an innovative solution. In this study, a novel guided screening strategy involving mixed-bacteria fermentation and partitioned purification (MBF) was proposed to first successful isolate Rhodococcus jostii LETBE 8896, a strain capable of naturally producing 4μg/L of lycopene from PET hydrolysate. Transcriptomic analysis identified the methylerythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway as key to lycopene biosynthesis, with IspG identified as a critical regulatory enzyme. R. jostii with ispG overexpression enhanced lycopene production, with 819μg/L in the simulated PET hydrolysate and 650μg/L in the PET hydrolysate. Additionally, the use of butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) as an antioxidant significantly improved lycopene production at 1L scale level, achieving a maximum yield of 1865μg/L with a molar conversion rate of 50.36% from the PET hydrolysate, the highest reported for PET hydrolysate to date. These findings highlight the dual potential of R. jostii as a chassis strain for high-value chemical production and as a sustainable solution for PET upcycling. This study provides a novel approach to plastic waste management, contributing to the circular economy and global sustainability goals.

Leveraging nitrogen source variability to boost lipid yield in Desmodesmus abundans: A multifaceted phylogenetic and biochemical study

Microalgae have emerged as a promising sustainable feedstock for biofuel production due to their rapid growth and high lipid accumulation. This study investigates the microalga Desmodesmus abundans, a robust species capable of thriving in diverse environments, including urban lakes. We conducted a phylogenetic analysis of the large subunit 18S rRNA gene sequences, revealing that the species was closely related to D. abundans isolate MAV2. Various nitrogen sources such as ammonium salts, nitrates, and urea were used to determine the best nitrogen source for this alga and NaNO3 shows promising results. Optimal growth conditions were observed at 25 ± 0.82 °C and pH 7.5 ± 0.23, and a 1.5 g/L dose of NaNO3 was found to enhance algal growth. Comprehensive biochemical analyses quantified the total carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids, with lipid profiling via Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) revealing characteristic features of fatty acids and lipids. Methanol extraction was most effective for phenolic and flavonoid compounds, exhibiting the highest antioxidant activities in DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and FRAP (ferric reducing antioxidant power) assays. Pigment analysis showed high concentrations of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, phycoerythrin, and phycocyanin. This research underscores the potential of D. abundans as a sustainable and economically viable alternative for biofuel and high-value chemical production, with implications for biotechnological applications such as bioremediation, aquaculture, and nutraceuticals.

A highly efficient mixed strain fermentation strategy to produce 11α-Hydroxyandrost-4-ene-3,17-dione from phytosterols.

11α-Hydroxyandrost-4-ene-3,17-dione (11α-OH AD) is an essential steroid hormone drug intermediate that exhibits low biotransformation efficiency. In this study, a mixed-strain fermentation strategy was established for the efficient production of 11α-OH AD from phytosterols (PS). Initially, strains were screened for efficient transformation of AD to produce 11α-OH AD. Subsequently, a dual-strain mixed-culture fermentation technique was established, with Mycolicibacterium neoaurum CICC 21097 ΔksdD (MNR) showing highly effective results. Ultimately, a one-step conversion process for the production of 11α-OH AD was achieved at a molar yield of 76.5% under optimal conditions using PS as a substrate, the highest reported yield to date. Additionally, studies revealed synergistic metabolic interactions between MNR and Aspergillus ochraceus in the mixed-culture system. These findings provide valuable insights for the industrial production of high-value products using mixed-strain fermentation.

Microalgae biomass: A multi-product biorefinery solution for sustainable energy, environmental remediation, and industrial symbiosis

The rapid expansion of industrialization and the depletion of non-renewable fossil fuel have urged the search for alternative and sustainable renewable resources to fulfil the escalating energy demand while reducing water pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Microalgae have emerged as a promising and sustainable solution, capable of not only treating wastewater but also yielding valuable products. This study aimed to explore the primary applications of microalgae, including wastewater treatment and CO2 sequestration, while assessing the viability of utilizing the resultant microalgae biomass (MB) across diverse sectors such as liquid and gaseous biofuels, bioplastics, animal and aquatic feed, nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals, biofertilizers, and cosmetics production. Additionally, the study discusses the importance of assessing the environmental impacts of these applications through life cycle assessment (LCA) studies and elaborate the concept of a multi-products biorefinery system. To address the contemporary challenges of the bio-economy in simultaneously producing multiple high-value products, the biorefinery complexity index (BCI) was estimated to be 37, highlighting the need for further research to establish the practicability of a multi-products biorefinery system.

Efficiently enhanced short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) recovery from food waste condensate: Real-time wettability monitoring with supported liquid membrane contactor.

Food waste condensate (FWC) is a valuable source for recovering short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) through methods such as supported liquid membrane contactors. Containing organic compounds like acetate, propionate, and butyrate, FWC offers a rich substrate for efficient SCFA extraction. Recovering SCFAs from FWC provides notable environmental advantages, including reducing waste and generating high-value products for industries such as bioenergy and chemical production. This process not only contributes to carbon neutrality by recycling waste streams but also establishes a sustainable method for producing bio-based products from FWC. This study investigated the recovery efficiency and transport mechanisms of SCFAs from SCFA-rich wastewater (e.g., FWC) using both virgin hydrophobic PVDF membranes and membranes filled with organic extractants like tertiary amines (trihexhylamine and trioctylamine) and tertiary phosphines (trihexylphosphine and trioctylphosphine). Recovery efficiency for butyric acid was significantly improved when TOA (trioctylamine) was used, achieving 71.96 %, while acetic acid showed a lower recovery of 0.95 %, highlighting TOA's strong affinity for butyric acid due to ion-amine complex formation. The study also utilized real-time optical coherence tomography (OCT)-based monitoring to observe membrane wetting, finding that the virgin PVDF membrane was more prone to wetting and fouling, with a significant reduction in contact angle and surface energy. In contrast, the PVDF-TOA membrane demonstrated better resistance to wetting, showing minimal changes in contact angle and porosity, underscoring its potential for long-term applications in membrane contactors.