High-pressure Hydrogen Release Research Articles

Effects of internal intervention in tubes on shock wave attenuation, formation and propagation of flame during high-pressure hydrogen release

Experiments on the impacts of the combination of fin structure and expansion chamber on shock wave attenuation, hydrogen ignition, and flame characteristics during high-pressure hydrogen release were carried out. The fin is a four-edged platform hollowed out on all sides. The inflated upper and lower tube walls are located 85, 95, and 105 mm away from the nickel burst disk. With the incident shock wave traveling through the fin, the reflected shock and the superposition of multiple reflected shock waves appear, and the reflected shock wave intensity can equal that of the release pressure. The decrease of the incident shock wave intensity behind the fin leads to the decrease of the non-uniformity of the mixed layer temperature, further causing the decrease of the flame propagation velocity. The presence of fins increases the probability of ignition in the fin region and the critical release pressure for ignition is significantly lower than that in the barrier free tube, mainly because the fin inside intensifies the hydrogen/air mixture, resulting in a lower minimum ignition energy required for self-ignition. Furthermore, the decrease of flame propagation velocity leads to the increase of hydrogen consumption inside the tube and the decrease of shock overpressure outside.

Investigation into the Suppression Effect of Water Mist on the Self-ignition and Flame Propagation of High-pressure Hydrogen Release

Abstract The self-ignition accident of pressurized hydrogen leakage is regarded as one of the big potential risks in its wide utilization. In this work, a detailed investigation into the suppression effect of water mist on the hydrogen self-ignition and flame propagation is performed. A parametric study of the effect of water concentration and droplet size on flame dynamic is conducted. The results show that the fine water mist effectively reduces the shock-heating temperature, significantly prolonging the ignition time and distance. The water droplets have a direct contact with the fast growing flame, which leads to more intense two-phase interaction that results in the decoupling of shock wave from the leading flame and a more pronounced bimodal flame structures. The droplet size is found to have small effect when the water concentration is low, and the mist with a medium size of 50 μm shows a better inhibitory performance.

Numerical simulation of high-pressure jet fire in on-board hydrogen storage cylinders under fire conditions

Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs) may cause fires in the event of an accident. When the high-pressure hydrogen storage cylinders are exposed to fire for a long time, there will be a risk of catastrophic consequences such as leakage, jet fire and explosion. Fire test is the main method to study the safety performance of hydrogen storage cylinders. During the firing process, the wall and internal temperature of the hydrogen storage cylinder rise gradually, and the thermally activated pressure relief device (TPRD) of the cylinder reaches a certain temperature and then releases high-pressure hydrogen to prevent the cylinder from bursting. As the hydrogen storage cylinder is in the fire environment, the release of high-pressure hydrogen will be ignited to form a jet fire and cause damage to personnel and equipment. In this paper, CFD software Fluent was used to numerically simulate the local fire test of the hydrogen storage cylinder with high-temperature air as the fire source. The variation law of cylinder wall temperature, gas temperature and pressure inside the cylinder, and the activation of TPRD were analyzed. At the same time, on the basis of the fire test simulation, a high-pressure hydrogen jet fire simulation numerical model caused by the TPRD action was established. The velocity field, temperature field and hydrogen concentration distribution of the jet fire were obtained, and the overpressure generated by the jet fire and the flame length size were analyzed. The results show that the high-pressure hydrogen released by TPRD was ignited under the fire condition to produce a jet flame and generated an overpressure in the jet direction, and the influence range of the overpressure was smaller than the influence range of the jet flame.

Release of high-pressure hydrogen from type III tank in a fire scenario: Analysis and prediction of jet flame length and thermal response characteristics

In this paper, the thermal response and jet flame behaviour of a typical type III high-pressure hydrogen storage tank with nominal working pressure (NWP) and volume of 70 MPa and 48 L were analysed at fire scenarios. The tank was discharged at a critical internal pressure 77.4 MPa, which was ca. 110 % of NWP. The pressure drop rates of type III tanks were greater than 1 MPa/s during the initial 15 s after venting. The length and width of jet flame were 4.93 and 1.65 m at the critical moment, which fluctuated downward over time. A thermokinetic model was employed to predict the variation of hydrogen gas state parameters and the maximum length of jet flame. The calculation results indicated that the maximum flame length of hydrogen released from a valve of 2 mm was around 2–6.5 m under a pressure range of 10–80 MPa. The error between the predicted results and the experimental values was less than 5 %. It was found that the flame length was enlarged by an increase of aperture. The length of flame increased by 6 m after the aperture changed from 2 to 5.08 mm at the equivalent pressure.

On the Features of Numerical Simulation of Hydrogen Self-Ignition under High-Pressure Release

The paper is devoted to the comparative analysis of different CFD techniques used to solve the problem of high-pressure hydrogen release into the air. Three variations of a contemporary low-dissipation numerical technique (CABARET) are compared with each other and a conventional first-order numerical scheme. It is shown that low dissipation of the numerical scheme defines better resolution of the contact surface between released hydrogen and ambient air. As a result, the spatial structures of the jet and the reaction wave that arise during self-ignition are better resolved, which is useful for predicting the local effects of high-pressure hydrogen release. At the same time, the dissipation has little effect on the induction delay, so critical conditions of self-ignition can be reliably reproduced even via conventional numerical schemes. The test problem setups formulated in the paper can be used as benchmarks for compressible CFD solvers.

Physics of pressurized hydrogen spontaneous ignition in pipes containing bends of different angles

In the context of hydrogen-based energy storage systems, the safeguarding against spontaneous ignition during high-pressure hydrogen release is of paramount importance. This study delves into the thermal safety and management technologies pertinent to such systems by numerically investigating the effects of pipeline geometry on the risk of spontaneous ignition. Employing Large Eddy Simulation (LES) coupled with detailed chemical kinetics and a linear eddy model, the research assesses the impact of different pipe angles and burst pressures on ignition behavior. The simulations are validated against experimental data, ensuring the veracity of the findings. The results demonstrate a significant interplay between the ignition propensity and both the geometrical configuration of the pipeline and the pressure of hydrogen release. Notably, the emergence and interaction of transverse waves in pipe bends are revealed to amplify mixing processes, generating vortices that elevate the temperature and promote a conducive environment for chemical reactions leading to stable flame propagation. The ignition is shown to occur predominantly near the stoichiometric mixture ratio, suggesting a narrow ignition region. These insights are vital for enhancing the safety protocols and thermal management strategies of hydrogen-based energy storage systems, paving the way for safer and more efficient energy solutions.

Numerical study on the shock wave and vortex and their coupling effect on the behavior of the flame induced by the spontaneous ignition of high-pressure hydrogen release

High-pressure hydrogen storage is currently the mainstream way of hydrogen storage. However, the risk of spontaneous ignition and subsequent jet flame are serious obstacles to the wide application of hydrogen energy. To further reveal the interaction of shock waves, vortices and flame induced by the spontaneous ignition of high-pressure hydrogen release under the effect of release process and burst pressure, a numerical study is conducted by employing LES, RNG, EDC models and detailed hydrogen/air combustion mechanism. The qualitative and quantitative comparison of flow field and flame splitting process outside the tube between this numerical study and previous experimental results validate the numerical results. It is found that an initial vortex is formed at the edge of the jet. Then, several vortices are generated at the edge of the jet and ahead of the Mach disk. The number of vortices in the outer side of the barrel shock is larger when the opening time is shorter. After moving out of the tube, the flame front becomes hemisphere and the lateral edge has a hemispherical bulge which is induced by the initial vortex. The temperature is low and the hydrogen concentration is high in the high-speed region which is induced by the reflected shock wave, leading to the splitting of the flame into two parts: the first and the second half of the flame. However, the flame cannot be formed at the initial stage when the opening time increases to 150 μs and the flame area is larger than with smaller opening times. After splitting, under the affection of the vortices generated at the lateral side, the first half of the flame rotates backward and gradually merges with the second half of the flame, finally forming a complete hydrogen jet flame.

Experimental investigation on the development characteristics of explosive overpressure induced by high-pressure hydrogen jet flame

Accidental release of high-pressure hydrogen can induce the self-ignition, and the spontaneously combusting flame can eventually induce a non-premixed jet flame or even explosion. In this study, the explosion overpressure characteristic of hydrogen jet flame outside the pipeline was investigated. Experiments were conducted on high-pressure hydrogen release pipelines with a diameter of 10 mm and pipeline lengths of 750, 1450 and 2200 mm, respectively, under different hydrogen release pressure. The impact of different initial conditions on the peak value of high-pressure hydrogen jet explosion was systematically investigated. The external pressure signals and flame images were completely collected. The results show that the external explosion overpressure decreased with the increase of axial distance away from the nozzle. When the length of the pipeline increased, the peak value of the overpressure was also gradually decreased. Meanwhile, as the high-pressure hydrogen burst pressure increased, the overpressure rose first and then decreased. With the increase of release pressure, when the hydrogen pressure exceeded 8 MPa, the hydrogen flow in the tube formed a blocked flow, so the increase of external explosion overpressure became slow. This topic can provide a reference for the safety development of the high-pressure hydrogen storage system.

Experimental investigation on shock wave propagation and spontaneous ignition of high-pressure hydrogen release through a sho (ϸ)-shaped extension tube into the atmosphere

The geometry of the extension tube has a great influence on the shock wave propagation and spontaneous ignition of high-pressure hydrogen release in this paper, piezoelectric pressure transducers, photodiodes and a high-speed camera are used to study the shock wave propagation and spontaneous ignition of high-pressure hydrogen released to the downstream sho (ϸ)-shaped extension tube. Experimental results show that the intensity of the leading shock wave is weakened due to the presence of branches when it propagates in the straight section of the sho-shaped tube, and a strong reflected shock wave is generated in the bend section. Spontaneous ignition is more prone to occur in the bend section than in the straight section, with a large optical signal value and long flame duration. However, due to the complex structure of the extension tube, there are still cases of the hydrogen flame extinguishing inside the tube even under high burst pressure. The flame detection time after the leading shock wave at the measured positions decreases with increasing burst pressure, and the time in the bend section is greater than that of the straight section. Radial flame expansion, flame separation, downstream flame extinction and upstream flame development, primary jet fire and secondary jet fire are successively observed outside the tube.

Numerical investigation on the shock wave propagation, hydrogen/air mixing and spontaneous ignition induced by high-pressure hydrogen release inside the tubes with different shaped cross-sections

Hydrogen is regard as one of the most promising primary energy vectors solving the problems of air pollution and energy shortage. However, the spontaneous ignition is a major hazard during the application of high-pressure hydrogen. In this paper, a numerical investigation is conducted to study the shock wave propagation, hydrogen/air mixing and spontaneous ignition induced by high-pressure hydrogen release into the tubes with square, pentagon and circular cross-sections (tube wall angles are 90, 108 and 180° respectively). Large Eddy Simulation, Eddy Dissipation Concept coupling with the detailed hydrogen/air reaction mechanism and 10-step like opening process of burst disk are employed. The numerical results of ignition conditions and positions agree well against the previous experimental results. In the square and pentagon tubes, the inward-reflected and outward-reflected shock wave could be generated simultaneously and interact with each other due to the radial propagation of leading shock wave. In the circular tube, however, the two types of reflected shock generate alternately and the interaction disappears. The higher viscous resistance at wall corner induces the formation of velocity shear layer on the tube wall, which promotes the mixing of hydrogen and air. The increase of the angle of wall corner reduces the flammable mixture with the chemical equilibrium equivalence ratio on the tube wall due to the low viscous resistance and short velocity shear layer. The ignition delay time/distance and combustion intensity decrease with the increase of the angle of wall corner. After the occurrence of spontaneous ignitions in the non-circular tubes, the flame propagates downstream and its length increases rapidly along the wall corner. In addition, larger combustion area could be observed with the decrease of the angle of wall corner.

Numerical study of inhibition mechanism of high-pressure hydrogen leakage self-ignition with the addition of ammonia

Hydrogen and ammonia have attracted increasing attention as carbon-free fuels. Ammonia is considered to be an effective energy storage and hydrogen storage medium. However, a small amount of unremoved NH3 is still present in the product during the decomposition of ammonia to produce hydrogen. Therefore, it is very essential to investigate the self-ignition of hydrogen-ammonia mixtures in order to accommodate the various scenarios of hydrogen energy applications. In this paper, the effect of NH3 addition on the self-ignition of high-pressure hydrogen release is numerically investigated. The RNG k-ε turbulence model, EDC combustion model, and 213-step detailed NH3/H2 combustion mechanism are used. CHEMKIN-Pro programs for zero-dimensional homogeneous and constant volume adiabatic reactor models are used for sensitivity analysis and ignition delay time of the chemical reaction mechanism. The results showed that the minimum burst pressure required for self-ignition increased significantly after the addition of ammonia. The maximum temperature and shock wave intensity inside the tube decreases with increasing ammonia concentration. The ignition delay time and H, HO2, and OH radicals reduce with increasing ammonia concentration. H and HO2 radicals are suggested as indicators for tracking the second and third flame branches, respectively.

Shock waves, overpressure, and spontaneous ignition of pressurized hydrogen in T-shaped tubes

The accidental release of high-pressure hydrogen into a tube can induce self-ignition, and special tube configurations can complicate their characteristics. Hence, this paper studies the shock waves and self-ignition in tubes with T-shaped structure. Results show that the shock wave intensity decreases after passing through the T-shaped region, and its intensity is lower in the branch pipeline. The flow field is extremely complex after shock waves enter the T-shaped region, accompanied by different shockwave structures (e.g. barrel shock and Mach disk), multiple reflections, and shock-shock interaction. In addition, the location of the bifurcation point affects not only the downstream velocity evolution but also the time of upstream pressure to reach the peak pressure. When the bifurcation point is the closest to the rupture disc, spontaneous ignition is least likely to take place. The flame intensity decreases after passing via a T-shaped zone. Besides, if the T-shaped zone is far from rupture disc, even extinguishment can occur.

Effects of obstacles inside the tube on initial self-ignition of high-pressure hydrogen release through a tube

The safe application of hydrogen has attracted increased attention. In particular, fire and explosion disasters may be induced by self-ignition during high-pressure hydrogen leakage. This study experimentally investigates the effect of obstacles on initial self-ignition when high-pressure hydrogen is suddenly released. High-pressure hydrogen release experiments are performed at burst pressures of 2–8 MPa. The hydrogen flame inside the tube is captured by a high-speed video camera and light sensors, and shock wave variations are measured by pressure transducers. The results show that the presence of obstacles inside the tube significantly affects shock wave flow. It is found in this study that obstacles decrease the minimum burst pressure needed for self-ignition and self-ignition is prone to occur in the vicinity of obstacles. The influence of obstacles on the initial ignition process are different at different self-ignition locations. On the one hand, the reflected shock wave originating from obstacles is the main reason for the promotion of self-ignition upstream of obstacles. On the other hand, the formation of a hydrogen/air mixture under the effect of turbulent flow and multi-dimensional shock waves leads to self-ignition downstream of obstacles. Meanwhile, the presence of obstacles before the initial ignition location (Lin) shortens the distance between the ignition location and the burst disk and significantly accelerates the occurrence of initial self-ignition. Obstacles participate in the self-ignition process earlier when they are placed closer to the burst disk. However, obstacles after the initial ignition location (Lin) show no effect on the initial ignition process. The results can guide the safe use of high-pressure hydrogen.

Effect of flow directions in the T-shaped tubes on the shock wave and spontaneous ignition of pressurized hydrogen

T-shaped tubes are widely used in the industry for the bifurcation of fluids. However, safety issues concerning the shock wave and spontaneous ignition resulting from the release of high-pressure hydrogen into T-shaped tubes are still challenging. That is because the flow direction of pressurized hydrogen can be different when we change the inlet of the T-shaped tube. In this paper, the effect of the flow directions in T-shaped tubes on the overpressure, shockwave, and spontaneous ignition is studied. Results show that differences in evolution of upstream pressure are not obvious even if the flow direction is different. But the flow features both in the trunk and branch pipeline downstream of the bifurcation point are significantly different, manifested in the shock wave’s velocity and the overpressure (shock-induced overpressure and maximum overpressure). The critical release pressure required for self-ignition is affected by the flow direction. When flow direction of the pressurized hydrogen can directly hit the wall in the T-shaped region, the critical release pressure is the lowest, even lower than that in the straight tube. However, the flame with another flow direction is unstable under the critical release pressure, which can sometimes induce the extinguishment. In addition, regardless of the different flow directions, the flame undergoes a reduction in intensity after the bifurcation and outside flames have similar evolutionary and morphological characteristics.

Experimental investigation of shock wave propagation, spontaneous ignition, and flame development of high-pressure hydrogen release through tubes with different obstacles arrangements

Experiments on shock waves propagation, spontaneous ignition, and flame development during high-pressure hydrogen release through tubes with symmetrical obstacles (O1-1) and asymmetrical obstacles (O1-2) are conducted. The obstacle's side is triangular with a length of 4 mm, a height of 3.6 mm, and its width is 15 mm. In the experiments, a reflected shock wave generates and propagates both upstream and downstream when the leading shock wave encounters the obstacle. At the same burst pressure, the reflected shock wave intensity in tube O1-1 is significantly greater than that in tube O1-2. Moreover, the presence of obstacles in the tube can induce spontaneous ignition. The minimum burst pressures for spontaneous ignition for tubes O1-1 and O1-2 are 2.84 MPa and 3.28 MPa respectively, lower than that for the smooth tube. Furthermore, both the initial ignition position and ignition time are greatly advanced in obstruction tubes, mainly affected by obstacle positions and burst pressures. Finally, the flame separation process near the obstacle is observed. After passing the obstacle, the flames grow rapidly in radial and axial directions on the tube sidewalls. And at the same burst pressure, the flame convergence time in tube O1-2 is usually longer than that in tube O1-1.

Numerical study on the shock evolution and the spontaneous ignition of high-pressure hydrogen during its sudden release into the tubes with different angles

High-pressure hydrogen storage is one of the best choices of hydrogen storage at present and in the future. However, the spontaneous ignition of high-pressure hydrogen release blocks its wide application. This paper further studies the shock evolution, temperature accumulation and spontaneous ignition inside the tubes with different angles by employing LES, RNG and EDC models, 10-step like opening process of burst disk and detailed hydrogen/air combustion mechanism. Four tubes with different angles (60, 90, 120 and 150°) are employed based on the previous experimental result. It is found that the smaller the angle of the tube, the greater the maximum pressure and temperature of the first shock reflection zone. And the maximum pressure and temperature of the second shock reflection zone is the highest inside the 90° angle tube. This is due to two shock reflection mechanisms inside the tubes: in acute angle tube, only the reflected hemispherical shock hits the inner wall of the tube corner, however, for non-acute tubes, both the reflected hemispherical shock and reflected normal shock hit the inner wall of the tube corner. In addition, it requires a longer time and a further distance to initiate the spontaneous ignition inside the tubes with larger angle. And the flame induced by the spontaneous ignition could move upstream steadily inside the 60° angle tube and the flame length increases with the release time to a maximum value of 21.44 mm.

Numerical simulation of the effect of multiple obstacles inside the tube on the spontaneous ignition of high-pressure hydrogen release

Self-ignition may occur during hydrogen storage and transportation if high-pressure hydrogen is suddenly released into the downstream pipelines, and the presence of obstacles inside the pipeline may affect the ignition mechanism of high-pressure hydrogen. In this work, the effects of multiple obstacles inside the tube on the shock wave propagation and self-ignition during high-pressure hydrogen release are investigated by numerical simulation. The RNG k-ε turbulence model, EDC combustion model, and 19-step detailed hydrogen combustion mechanism are employed. After verifying the reliability of the model with experimental data, the self-ignition process of high-pressure hydrogen release into tubes with obstacles with different locations, spacings, shapes, and blockage ratios is numerically investigated. The results show that obstacles with different locations, spacings, shapes and blockage ratios will generate reflected shock waves with different sizes and propagation trends. The closer the location of obstacles to the burst disk, the smaller the spacing, and the larger the blockage ratio will cause the greater the pressure of the reflected shock wave it produces. Compared with the tubes with rectangular-shaped, semi-circular-shaped and triangular-shaped obstacles, self-ignition is preferred to occur in tube with triangular-shaped obstacles.

Physics and flame morphology of supersonic spontaneously combusting hydrogen spouting into air

Spontaneous ignition resulting from the accidental release of high-pressure hydrogen is an important safety issue, and the self-ignition flame can eventually induce a jet flame. However, the links between the self-ignition flame inside a tube and an external jet flame are unclear. Hence, this paper presents a study on how the self-ignition flame transforms into the jet flame in the near-field region of the nozzle. Effects of release pressure and tube length are investigated. Changes in release conditions can lead to changes in the flow characteristics of the self-combustible jet at the nozzle. Results show that the difference in the flow parameters is manifested in three aspects, which directly contribute to the diversity of transition forms. The expansion processes and shock structure govern the flame transition. The expansion process consists of two typical stages, which lead to two different flame morphologies. Besides, the presence of discontinuous surfaces in the shock wave structure can cause the self-ignition flame to extinguish or re-ignition in some transition processes, resulting in the flame appearing in different zones during different transitions. Finally, five forms of flame transition are proposed and their formation reasons are analyzed. Dominant factors and links between different transitions are eventually identified.

Mechanism of self-ignition and flame propagation during high-pressure hydrogen release through a rectangular tube

The dynamic mechanisms of self-ignition and flame propagation during high-pressure hydrogen release through a rectangular tube were experimentally investigated using pressure records, flame detection and high-speed photographs. Experimental results show that the minimum burst pressure for self-ignition decreases with an increase in axial distance to the diaphragm and then remains at an almost constant value. The self-ignition onset at the same location of the tube exhibits a certain randomness even if the intensity of the shock wave produced in the tube is similar. Multiple ignitions were observed at the early stage of hydrogen release. They usually had difficulty to sustainably develop and were extinguished owing to oxygen deficiency. At a subsequent stage, the ignition kernel appears again and grows rapidly in the axial and radial directions, finally converging to a complete flame across the tube width. It was found that the radial growth rate of the flame was lower than the axial growth rate.

Effects of CO addition on shock wave propagation, self-ignition, and flame development of high-pressure hydrogen release into air

In this study, an experimental investigation is conducted to study the effects of CO addition (0%–7.5% vol.) on the self-ignition of pressurized hydrogen leakage. The result shows that more CO addition significantly decreases the likelihood of self-ignition inside the tube and the formation of self-sustained jet flame outside the tube. This can be mostly explained by the reduction of leading shock intensity inside the tube. Furthermore, CO addition effectively inhibits the flame propagation and development inside the tube. For pure hydrogen, the ignited flame quickly develops an intense flame spanning the tube width and eventually form a jet flame in ambient air. However, the H 2 –CO diffusion flame initiated approaching tube sidewall tends to propagate adjacent to the wall or be soon quenched with more CO addition. If the CO-weakened flame spouts to the tube exit, it may not survive the expansion at the tube exit and thus it is quenched. • The shock intensity is reduced in the presence of CO. • The critical pressure for self-ignition increases with CO addition concentration. • Shock intensity variation by CO addition is the main factor affecting self-ignition onset. • Small CO addition can effectively inhibit flame development inside the tube. • H 2 –CO flame spouting from the tube exit tends to be blown out.