High-precision Fabrication Research Articles

Minimum quantity lubrication grinding process for high aluminum-silicon glass mobile phone cover plates

PurposeThe impact on both the environment and operator health is significant. As high-alumina silica glass finds applications in smart devices such as curved mobile phone screens, the grinding of complex curved surfaces necessitates cleaner and more efficient cooling and lubrication methods to enhance processing quality and improve grinding yield rates. This study aims to focus on grinding high-alumina silica glass using micro-lubrication technology and compares its performance with traditional cutting fluid cooling methods.Design/methodology/approachIn the fabrication of mobile phone cover plates composed of high-alumina silicon glass, the incorporation of micro-lubrication grinding technology was undertaken, with the conventional cutting fluid cooling approach serving as the benchmark control group for comparative analysis.FindingsThe results indicate that increasing the spray pressure of micro-lubrication within a specific range contributes to reducing grinding surface roughness. At a grinding speed ranging from 25 to 35 m/s, using micro-lubrication can effectively replace the traditional cutting fluid cooling method, resulting in glass surfaces with roughness levels between 0.22 and 0.26. However, at grinding speeds exceeding 35 m/s, the insufficient pressure of the micro-lubricant mist hinders most of the oil mist from entering the grinding zone, leading to inferior cooling performance compared to cutting fluid cooling. Notably, at a grinding speed of 35 m/s, micro-lubrication demonstrates better effectiveness in suppressing chipping during glass grinding compared to traditional cutting fluid cooling methods.Originality/valueThrough the application of micro-lubrication grinding technology, a marked improvement in the grinding quality of high-alumina silicon mobile phone cover plate glass can be achieved, leading to a reduction in surface roughness, a decrease in processing defects and ultimately satisfying the demands for high-precision and high-quality fabrication of such cover plates.Peer reviewThe peer review history for this article is available at: https://publons.com/publon/10.1108/ILT-08-2024-0297

Precision Electrochemical Micro-Machining of Molybdenum in Neutral Salt Solution Based on Electrochemical Analysis

Molybdenum is an important material in modern industry, widely used in extreme environments such as rocket engine nozzles and microelectrodes due to its high melting point, excellent mechanical properties, and thermal conductivity. However, as a difficult-to-machine metal, traditional machining methods struggle to achieve the desired microstructures in molybdenum. Electrochemical machining (ECM) offers unique advantages in manufacturing fine structures from hard-to-machine metals. Studies have shown that molybdenum exhibits a fast corrosion rate in alkaline or acidic solutions, posing significant environmental pressure. Therefore, this study investigates the electrochemical machining of molybdenum in neutral salt solutions to achieve high-precision microstructure fabrication. First, the polarization curves and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) of molybdenum in NaNO3 solutions of varying concentrations were measured to determine its electrochemical reaction characteristics. The results demonstrate that molybdenum exhibits good electrochemical reactivity in NaNO3 solutions, leading to favorable surface erosion morphology. Subsequently, a mask electrochemical machining technique was employed to fabricate arrayed microstructures on the molybdenum surface. To minimize interference between factors, an orthogonal experiment was used to optimize the parameter combination, determining the optimal machining process parameters. Under these optimal conditions, an array of micro-groove structures was successfully fabricated with an average groove width of 110 μm, a depth-to-width ratio of 0.21, an aspect ratio of 9000, and a groove width error of less than 5 μm.

Exploring the Adaptability of 4D Printed Shape Memory Polymer Featuring Dynamic Covalent Bonds.

4D printing (4DP) of high-performance shape memory polymers (SMPs), particularly using digital light processing (DLP), has garnered intense global attention due to its capability for rapid and high-precision fabrication of complex configurations, meeting diverse application requirements. However, the development of high-performance dynamic shape memory polymers (DSMPs) for DLP printing remains a significant challenge due to the inherent incompatibilities between the photopolymerization process and the curing/polymerization of high-strength polymers. Here, a mechanically robust DSMP compatible is developed with DLP printing, which incorporates dynamic covalent bonds of imine linking polyimide rigid segments, exhibiting remarkable mechanical performance (tensile strength ≈41.7MPa, modulus ≈1.63GPa) and thermal stability (Tg ∼ 113°C, Td ∼ 208°C). More importantly, benefiting from the solid-state plasticity conferred by dynamic covalent bonds, 4D printed structures demonstrate rapid network adaptiveness, enabling effortless realization of reconfiguration, self-healing, and recycling. Meanwhile, the extensive π-π conjugated structures bestow DSMP with an intrinsic photothermal effect, allowing controllable morphing of the 4D configuration through dual-mode triggering. This work not only greatly enriches the application scope of high-performance personalized configurations but also provides a reliable approach to addressing environmental pollution and energy crises.

Elucidating the mechanism of overcuring in microchannels fabricated via vat photopolymerization (VPP) for precise microfluidic chip printing

Vat Photopolymerization (VPP) technology is highly regarded for precision micromachining applications like microfluidic chip fabrication, owing to its fine resolution, adaptability, and rapid prototyping capabilities. However, the challenge of resin over-curing resulting from UV energy penetration poses a significant obstacle in microchannel printing. This study addresses this challenge by investigating the intricate relationship between resin properties and over-curing. Diverse microfluidic chips were printed utilizing VPP technology, and the overall cross-sectional over-curing characteristics of the channels were systematically examined. A novel combination of the classical UV light curing model and computational Fluid-Structure Interaction (FSI) model with the VPP printing process was proposed to examine the complex hydrodynamics and exfoliation dynamics within VPP-printed microchannels. The simulation results suggest that resins with higher viscosities and surface roughness are better suited for microchannel printing. Subsequent experiments using five different resins verified these findings and showed that the microchannels obtained with resins of lower viscosity and surface roughness resins have an irregular trapezoidal cross-section, which is uncontrollable and unpredictable and seriously affects the microchannel printing accuracy. Conversely, resins with higher viscosity and surface roughness have an ideal rectangular cross-section, which can be compensated by the model further refined printing to print microchannel. Finally, microfluidic chips were printed using "high precision 8 K resin" and "8 K-clay resin" with higher viscosity and surface roughness. The results proved that the microchannels printed by these resins had the desired rectangular cross-section, which was consistent with the "DLP light-curing" model. This study elucidates, for the first time, the intricate interplay between resin properties, printing structure, and microchannel over-curing, and this provides a solid groundwork for advancing high-precision microfluidic chip fabrication via DLP printing.

Optically controllable deformation and phase change in VO2/Si3N4/Au hybrid nanostructures with polarization selectivity

Optically spatial displacement and material modification hold great potential for the appealing applications in nanofabrication and reconfiguration of functional optical devices. Here, we propose and demonstrate a scheme to achieve simultaneous deformation and phase change in vanadium dioxide (VO2)/Si3N4/Au hybrid nanostructures by laser stimuli. Low triggering threshold and significant deformation characteristics of VO2, based on controllable phase transition, are demonstrated in microscale cantilevers. The plasmonic properties of the nanostructure array are further utilized to achieve a polarization-selective dynamic response. The persistence of deformation and dynamical optical modulation are further demonstrated. Such high-precision fabrication methods and non-contact reconfiguration methods are useful for future applications in dynamic optical manipulation.

Efficient fabrication of high-quality hybrid periodic nanostructures on 4H-SiC using a single-step vector femtosecond laser processing

Femtosecond lasers are widely recognized for generating laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS) on various materials. Moreover, the homogeneous low spatial frequency LIPSS (H-LSFL) can be achieved by employing linear scanning with polarized femtosecond laser pulses and precise control of parameters, such as fluence and scanning speed. Unlike traditional LSFLs, these H-LSFLs are characterized by uniform structures. This study demonstrates the high-precision fabrication of hybrid periodic nanostructures, specifically H-LSFL with vertically aligned HSFL (high-spatial frequency LIPSS) on 4H-SiC using azimuthally polarized femtosecond laser beams. The experimental results revealed that the rapid fabrication of two parallel line patterns featuring hybrid periodic nanostructures can be achieved in a single scanning pass. Furthermore, a beam expander was employed to reduce the laser’s focal spot size, increasing the distribution of HSFL concerning H-LSFL as the distance between line segments decreased.

Concept and simulation of a novel dual-layer linear ion trap mass analyzer for micro-electromechanical systems mass spectrometry.

This paper proposed a dual-layer linear ion trap mass analyzer (dLIT) based on micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) technology and stacked-layer structure for the development of MEMS mass spectrometry. Its basic performance and potential capabilities were explored by ion trajectory simulations. The theoretical formulas were modified by implementing multipole expansion. The simulation results were confirmed to be highly consistent with theoretical calculations in multiple aspects, including stability diagram, secular frequencies, and mass linearity, with only a deviation of 1-2%. In the boundary ejection mode, close to 100% ejection was achieved in a single dimension by applying extra quadrupole DC voltage. Preliminary simulation results showed that dLIT can achieve a peak width of ∼2 mass units (full width at half maximum, FWHM) for m/z 60 ions even at pressures as high as 50 Pa. Furthermore, the application of AC frequency scanning mode in dLIT was also evaluated, and preliminary simulation results yield a peak width of 0.3-0.4 mass units (FWHM). The dLIT offered several advantages, including high-precision fabrication at the sub-millimeter scale, excellent high-pressure performance, and a clear physical model. It preliminarily proved to be an ideal mass analyzer for MEMS mass spectrometry.

Dynamics of phase transformations in Si and Ge upon strong excitation with UV femtosecond laser pulses

Femtosecond laser processing of semiconductors has evolved into a mature, high-precision fabrication technique, enabling a wide range of applications. While initially most studies have employed pulses at near infrared wavelengths, the interest in using UV laser pulses is constantly increasing due to the different excitation conditions as a consequence of the much shorter optical penetration depth, leading to an improved resolution. In this context, fundamental studies on the temporal dynamics of phase transformations triggered by such pulses are necessary in order to comprehend and eventually control the complex phase transformation pathways. Here, we report a detailed time-resolved study on the phase transformation dynamics of crystalline silicon and germanium upon irradiation with single 400 nm, 100 fs laser pulses in the moderate and high excitation regime. To this end, we have employed fs-resolved optical microscopy with a probe wavelength of 800 nm to study the reflectivity evolution of the irradiated surface over a temporal window ranging from 100 fs up to 20 ns. At moderate excitation fluence, the data reveals the entire sequence of laser-induced processes, starting from the generation of a free-electron plasma, non-thermal melting, ablation onset and expansion of a semi-transparent ablation layer with sharp interfaces. At excitation with peak fluences more than 30 times the ablation threshold, an anomalous transient high-reflectivity state is observed, which might be indicative of a recoil pressure-induced liquid–liquid phase transition. Moreover, 70 nm-thick amorphous surface layers are formed in both materials after irradiation at moderate fluences. Overall, our results provide relevant information on both, transformation dynamics and final state of both materials for fs-pulse excitation in the near-UV wavelength range.

A MEMS Disk Gyroscope with High Fabrication Precision, High Quality Factor (>810k) and High Overload Characteristic (>15000g)

This paper presents an electromagnetic MEMS disk gyroscope based on fused silica to enhance the accuracy of MEMS gyros under high overload conditions. A laser-induced modified wet etching (LIE) technology was utilized for gyro fabrication and a detailed analysis was conducted on the factors affecting quality factor (Q-value) of the gyro. The LIE process parameters were optimized using a four-factor and three-level orthogonal experiment, and structure compensation were implemented to address machining errors. Impact capability of the resonator and mode characterization as well as Q-value of the gyro revealing that the resonator can withstand high overload up to 15000g, frequency of working mode is 15382.2Hz and 15379.8Hz, respectively, which close to simulated result of 15443Hz exhibited high process precision. The corresponding Q-values of the driving mode and sensing mode are 817k and 819k, respectively, indicating high-performance potential.

Mask-Moving-Lithography-Based High-Precision Surface Fabrication Method for Microlens Arrays.

Microlens arrays, as typical micro-optical elements, effectively enhance the integration and performance of optical systems. The surface shape errors and surface roughness of microlens arrays are the main indicators of their optical characteristics and determine their optical performance. In this study, a mask-moving-projection-lithography-based high-precision surface fabrication method for microlens arrays is proposed, which effectively reduces the surface shape errors and surface roughness of microlens arrays. The pre-exposure technology is used to reduce the development threshold of the photoresist, thus eliminating the impact of the exposure threshold on the surface shape of the microlens. After development, the inverted air bath reflux method is used to bring the microlens array surface to a molten state, effectively eliminating surface protrusions. Experimental results show that the microlens arrays fabricated using this method had a root mean square error of less than 2.8%, and their surface roughness could reach the nanometer level, which effectively improves the fabrication precision for microlens arrays.

Key technology of vector removal decoupling in a slope-based figuring model and application in continuous phase plate fabrication.

For the high-precision fabrication of a continuous phase plate (CPP), a combined decoupling algorithm of single-step decoupling based on the Clairaut-Schwarz theorem and global decoupling by stagewise iteration is proposed. It attempts to address the problem of the low accuracy and limitation of the existing slope-based figuring (SF) model in two-dimensional applications caused by the vector removal coupling between the tool slope influence function and the material removal slope due to the inherent convolution effect in the SF model. The shortcomings of CPP interferometry and the application bottleneck of the Hartmann test in traditional height-based figuring model are studied. The generation mechanism of vector removal coupling is analyzed and compensated. A CPP of 85m m×85m m was successfully machined by the decoupled slope-based figuring model, and the root mean square (RMS) of the surface height error accounted for 6.01% of the RMS of the design value. The research results can effectively improve the convergence and certainty of CPP fabrication using the slope-based figuring model.

Ultra-simplified diffraction-based computational spectrometer

Miniaturizing spectrometers for compact and cost-effective mobile platforms is a major challenge in current spectroscopy research, where conventional spectrometers are impractical due to their bulky footprint. Existing miniaturized designs primarily rely on precalibrated response functions of nanophotonic structures to encode spectral information captured in a snapshot by detector arrays. Accurate spectrum reconstruction is achieved through computational techniques, but this requires precise component design, high-precision fabrication, and calibration. We propose an ultra-simplified computational spectrometer that employs a one-to-broadband diffraction decomposition strategy facilitated by a numerical regularized transform that depends only on the spectrum of the diffracted radiation. The key feature of our design is the use of a simple, arbitrarily shaped pinhole as the partial disperser, eliminating the need for complex encoding designs and full spectrum calibration. Our spectrometer achieves a reconstructed spectral peak location accuracy of better than 1 nm over a 200 nm bandwidth and excellent resolution for peaks separated by 3 nm in a bimodal spectrum, all within a compact footprint of under half an inch. Notably, our approach also reveals a breakthrough in broadband coherent diffractive imaging without requiring any prior knowledge of the broadband illumination spectrum, assumptions of non-dispersive specimens, or correction for detector quantum efficiency.

Inherently Selective Atomic Layer Deposition for Optical and Sensor Applications: Microreactor Direct Atomic Layer Processing (μDALP™)

In parallel to additive manufacturing leading the revolution in traditional manufacturing, the same principles can revolutionize traditional thin film deposition techniques. Where lithography and vapor phase deposition techniques struggle, for example, with rapid iterations for prototyping or incompatibility with the used chemistry, additive manufacturing can shine. Indeed, several approaches are in development for 3D nanopriting1,2,3.Atomic Layer Deposition, and in more general Atomic Layer Processing, offers a unique opportunity for localized 3D processing/printing due to its two-step process. While simple in theory, due to well-developed examples of Spatial Atomic Layer Deposition (SALD), in practice miniturization of SALD requires substantial effort into the creation of suitable micro-nozzles. Uniquely, ATLANT 3D has developed proprietary Spatial ALD micronozzles, naming the process microreactor Direct Atomic Layer Processing - µDALPTM.The µDALPTM process undergoes the same cyclic ALD process but, thanks to the in-house microreactor development, is only done in a localized area. The microreactor or micronozzle confines the flows of gases used for ALD within a µm-scale area on the substrate, wherein the reactive species adsorb on the surface to deposit one monolayer of the desired material. Similarly, to spatial ALD, the creation of this monolayer then hinges on the movement of the substrate.4 Since the µDALPTM process is based on physical separation, it is theoretically compatible with any ALD process. As such, the material capabilities can match traditional ALD and exceed other special or patterning thin film techniques, such as lithography, which can be costly and time-consuming, especially for rapid prototyping required for innovation.Films deposited with ATLANT 3D technology have been shown to produce high-quality, crystalline, atomically precise thin films.1 It has been used to fabricate temperature (Fig.1) and capacitive sensors with sensitivities that meet or exceed those of devices made using conventional vapor phase deposition techniques.5 Low-cost rapid prototyping facilitated by ATLANT 3D technology of such devices enables design innovation and optimization not possible with other thin film deposition techniques.ATLANT 3D platform provides flexibility in deposition geometry (Fig.2) that enables a range of optical applications that require high-precision fabrication techniques. Optically transparent films can be used as localized thin protective layers for device encapsulation, as well as for atomic corrections of defects. Alternating deposition materials enable multilayer mirror fabrication of custom dimensions. Smooth thickness gradients can be used to manufacture ultrathin optical lenses. Overlapping depositions with discrete steps enable the manufacturing of binary lenses and phase masks. Growth rate enhancement in rastered direct processing mode using ATLANT 3D technology can produce periodic grating structures.1 Conformal coatings on complex surfaces can act as functionalization layers or seed layers for further material deposition through e.g. electrochemical processes.[1] Kundrata I. et al., ALD/ALE 2022 [Int. Conf.], 2022 [2] de la Huerta C. A. M. et al., arXiv, 2020, 0523. [3] Winkler, R. et al., J. Appl. Phys., 2019, 125, 210901[4] Paul Poodt., JVSTA., 2012, 30, 010802[5] Kundrata, I. et al., Small Methods., 2022, 6 (5), 2101546 Figure 1

Conformal Fabrication of Thick Film Platinum Strain Gauge Via Error Regulation Strategies for In Situ High-Temperature Strain Detection.

Monitoring high-temperature strain on curved components in harsh environments is a challenge for a wide range of applications, including in aircraft engines, gas turbines, and hypersonic vehicles. Although there are significant improvements in the preparation of high-temperature piezoresistive film on planar surfaces using 3D printing methods, there are still difficulties with poor surface compatibility and high-temperature strain testing on curved surfaces. Herein, a conformal direct ink writing (CDIW) system coupled with an error feedback regulation strategy was used to fabricate high-precision, thick films on curved surfaces. This strategy enabled the maximum amount of error in the distance between the needle and the substrate on a curved surface to be regulated from 155 to 4 μm. A conformal Pt thick-film strain gauge (CPTFSG) with a room-temperature strain coefficient of 1.7 was created on a curved metallic substrate for the first time. The resistance drift rate at 800 °C for 1 h was 1.1%, which demonstrated the excellent stability and oxidation resistance of the CPTFSG. High-temperature dynamic strain tests up to 769 °C revealed that the sensor had excellent high-temperature strain test performance. Furthermore, the CPTFSG was conformally deposited on an aero-engine turbine blade to perform in situ tensile and compressive strain testing at room temperature. High-temperature strain tests were conducted at 100 and 200 °C for 600 and 580 με, respectively, demonstrating a high steady-state response consistent with the commercial high-temperature strain transducer. In addition, steady-state strain tests at high temperatures up to 496 °C were tested. The CDIW error modulation strategy provides a highly promising approach for the high-precision fabrication of Pt thick films on complex surfaces and driving in situ sensing of high-temperature parameters on curved components toward practical applications.

High-Precision Ultra-Long Air Slit Fabrication Based on MEMS Technology for Imaging Spectrometers.

The increasing demand for accurate imaging spectral information in remote sensing detection has driven the development of hyperspectral remote sensing instruments towards a larger view field and higher resolution. As the core component of the spectrometer slit, the designed length reaches tens of millimeters while the precision maintained within the μm level. Such precision requirements pose challenges to traditional machining and laser processing. In this paper, a high-precision air slit was created with a large aspect ratio through MEMS technology on SOI silicon wafers. In particular, a MEMS slit was prepared with a width of 15 μm and an aspect ratio exceeding 4000:1, and a spectral spectroscopy system was created and tested with a Hg-Cd light source. As a result, the spectral spectrum was linear within the visible range, and a spectral resolution of less than 1 nm was obtained. The standard deviation of resolution is only one-fourth of that is seen in machined slits across various view fields. This research provided a reliable and novel manufacturing technique for high-precision air slits, offering technical assistance in developing high-resolution wide-coverage imaging spectrometers.

A Function-Based Approach to Interactive High-Precision Volumetric Design and Fabrication

We present a novel function representation (F-Rep) based geometric modeling kernel tailor-made to support computer aided design (CAD) and fabrication of high resolution volumetric models containing hundreds of billions of voxel grid elements. Our modeling kernel addresses existing limitations associated with evaluating, storing, and accessing volumetric data produced by F-Reps in contexts outside of rendering. The result is an F-Rep modeling kernel well suited for CAD-based applications. Our kernel utilizes a sparse volume data structure to manage F-Rep data while efficient F-Rep evaluation is achieved through a combination of interval arithmetic (IA), just-in-time (JIT) compilation of user-defined functions, and massively parallel evaluation on the GPU. We employ IA as the basis for local pruning of the function evaluation tree to minimize total function evaluations, we use a novel JIT compilation scheme to optimize function execution, and we take advantage of GPU-parallelism to enhance computational throughput. We illustrate the kernel’s effectiveness in visualizing and slicing models with complex defining functions and detailed geometry, and utilize the geometry kernel to manufacture a physical part. Additionally, we present performance metrics across multiple hardware configurations demonstrating significant performance improvements over existing F-Rep geometry kernels, and we examine how our geometry kernel scales with computing power.

Laser patterning of large-scale perovskite single-crystal-based arrays for single-mode laser displays

Lead halide perovskites have attracted considerable attention as potential candidates for high-performance nano/microlasers, owing to their outstanding optical properties. However, the further development of perovskite microlaser arrays (especially based on polycrystalline thin films) produced by the conventional processing techniques is hindered by the chemical instability and surface roughness of the perovskite structures. Herein, we demonstrate a laser patterning of large-scale, highly crystalline perovskite single-crystal films to fabricate reproducible perovskite single-crystal-based microlaser arrays. Perovskite thin films were directly ablated by femtosecond-laser in multiple low-power cycles at a minimum machining line width of approximately 300 nm to realize high-precision, chemically clean, and repeatable fabrication of microdisk arrays. The surface impurities generated during the process can be washed away to avoid external optical loss due to the robustness of the single-crystal film. Moreover, the high-quality, large-sized perovskite single-crystal films can significantly improve the quality of microcavities, thereby realizing a perovskite microdisk laser with narrow linewidth (0.09 nm) and low threshold (5.1 μJ/cm2). Benefiting from the novel laser patterning method and the large-sized perovskite single-crystal films, a high power and high color purity laser display with single-mode microlasers as pixels was successfully fabricated. Thus, this study may offer a potential platform for mass-scale and reproducible fabrication of microlaser arrays, and further facilitate the development of highly integrated applications based on perovskite materials.

Accurate measurement and adjustment method for interference fringe direction in a scanning beam interference lithography system.

To improve the exposure contrast of the scanning beam interference lithography (SBIL) system, a mathematical model of scanning exposure that includes the direction error of the measurement mirror is established. The effect of the angle between the interference fringe direction and the X-axis measurement mirror direction on the exposure contrast is analyzed. An accurate method for interference fringe direction measurement based on the heterodyne interferometry measurement method of the metrology grating and phase shift interferometry is proposed. This method combines the diffraction characteristics of the metrology grating and the phase shift algorithm to calculate the angle between the interference fringe direction and the measurement mirror direction accurately and adjust it. Experiments show that this angle reaches 0.6777 µrad, which meets high-precision grating fabrication requirements. Exposure comparison experiments performed at various angles show that a smaller angle between the interference fringe direction and the measurement mirror direction leads to better grating groove production by scanning exposure, which is consistent with the theoretical analysis. The accuracy of the theoretical analysis and the feasibility of the interference fringe direction adjustment method are verified, laying a foundation for high-quality grating fabrication by the SBIL system.

Laser shock forming of metal nanostructures withultrafine gaps.

The nanogaps between metal nanostructures are of great importance in nanotechnology. However, low cost and high precision fabrication of such nanogaps is still a difficult problem. In this paper, a method combining nanosecond laser shock and flexible metal film is proposed to form ultrafine gaps between metal nanostructures. The forming mechanism of ultrafine gaps between metal nanostructures was revealed by studying the superplastic deformation, spatiotemporal evolution of stress and strain, and cooperative deformation of the flexible metal thin film and metal nanostructures under laser shock. On the basis of the mechanism study, the effects of laser parameters and gold nanoparticle size on the forming of ultrafine gaps were further studied, so as to achieve high precision forming of ultrafine gaps (<10n m) between metal nanostructures.

Implantable Electrochemical Sensors for Brain Research.

Implantable electrochemical sensors provide reliable tools for in vivo brain research. Recent advances in electrode surface design and high-precision fabrication of devices led to significant developments in selectivity, reversibility, quantitative detection, stability, and compatibility of other methods, which enabled electrochemical sensors to provide molecular-scale research tools for dissecting the mechanisms of the brain. In this Perspective, we summarize the contribution of these advances to brain research and provide an outlook on the development of the next generation of electrochemical sensors for the brain.