High Parenting Stress Research Articles

Longitudinal Trajectories of Parenting Stress Among Ethnic Minority Adolescent Mothers.

Parenting stress has been linked with negative outcomes for parents and their infants (e.g., parental depression, negative parenting behaviors, poor attachment). Racial/ethnic minority adolescent mothers have increased risk for experiencing parenting stress compared to their White counterparts. Little is known about the changes in parenting stress over time for this population. Growth mixture modeling (GMM) was conducted to determine the growth trajectory classes of 185 African American and Latina/Hispanic adolescent mothers over 2 years. Risk and protective factors (e.g., maternal depression, social support, self-esteem) were examined to determine their influence on parenting stress trajectories. Three distinct trajectories of parenting stress were found: low stable stress (40.90%), decreasing stress (35.78%), and high stable stress (23.28%). Lower maternal depression (OR = 2.35), higher self-esteem (OR = 1.29), lower perceived social support from family (OR = 0.53) and higher perceived support from friends (OR = 1.65) predicted placement into the low stable parenting stress group over the high stable parenting stress group. Adolescents living with family (OR = 2.74) and Latina race/ethnicity (OR = 2.78) also served as predictors of placement into the low stable parenting stress group. Higher self-esteem (OR = 1.66) predicted placement into the decreasing parenting stress group over the high stable parenting stress group. These findings highlight the importance of perceived peer support by adolescent mothers, regardless of their support family support (e.g., living at home and receiving child care). Considering developmental factors such as peer relationships may be important when working with adolescent mothers.

Recessive GM3 synthase deficiency: Natural history, biochemistry, and therapeutic frontier

GM3 synthase, encoded by ST3GAL5, initiates synthesis of all downstream cerebral gangliosides. Here, we present biochemical, functional, and natural history data from 50 individuals homozygous for a pathogenic ST3GAL5 c.862C>T founder allele (median age 8.1, range 0.7–30.5 years). GM3 and its derivatives were undetectable in plasma. Weight and head circumference were normal at birth and mean Apgar scores were 7.7 ± 2.0 (1 min) and 8.9 ± 0.5 (5 min). Somatic growth failure, progressive microcephaly, global developmental delay, visual inattentiveness, and dyskinetic movements developed within a few months of life. Infantile-onset epileptic encephalopathy was characterized by a slow, disorganized, high-voltage background, poor state transitions, absent posterior rhythm, and spike trains from multiple independent cortical foci; >90% of electrographic seizures were clinically silent. Hearing loss affected cochlea and central auditory pathways and 76% of children tested failed the newborn hearing screen. Development stagnated early in life; only 13 (26%) patients sat independently (median age 30 months), three (6%) learned to crawl, and none achieved reciprocal communication. Incessant irritability, often accompanied by insomnia, began during infancy and contributed to high parental stress. Despite catastrophic neurological dysfunction, neuroimaging showed only subtle or no destructive changes into late childhood and hospitalizations were surprisingly rare (0.2 per patient per year). Median survival was 23.5 years. Our observations corroborate findings from transgenic mice which indicate that gangliosides might have a limited role in embryonic neurodevelopment but become vital for postnatal brain growth and function. These results have critical implications for the design and implementation of ganglioside restitution therapies.

Stress e competenze genitoriali nelle separazioni giudiziarie. Analisi dei fattori protettivi e di rischio nelle relazioni parentali

Parental stress is a psycho-social dimension of the parent-child relationship and is influenced by the context in which the relationship is experienced. Separa-tion can affect the functionality/dysfunctionality of parenting skills and the level and quality of perceived stress. The main goal of the present study is to investiga-te the possible predictive effect of parental stress perceived during judicial sepa-ration on parental behaviors of risk and/or psychological prejudice. On a sample of 22 parental couples involved in psychological expert witness, the PSI (Paren-ting Stress Index; Abidin, 1986) was administered in order to analyze parental stress level that takes into account the representation that the parent has of his/her child and of the relationship with him/her. The results reported in the PSI will be analyzed in relation to the evaluation of parental skills conducted with the APS-I tool (Assessment of Parental Skills Interview; Camerini et al., 2007). The results show how high parental stress, especially when perceived in the relation-ship with the child (PCDI scale), tends to assume a predictive effect of risk of emotional abuse and/or emotional and psychological neglect. Parental stress can be an interesting key to understanding dynamics between parents and children and parenting skills, useful both from a clinical point of view and in expert wit-ness in court.

Physical and psychosocial development of Mapuche and nonindigenous Chilean toddlers: A modest role of ethnicity.

Mapuche represents the largest indigenous group in Chile amounting to nearly 10% of the total population. In a longitudinal cohort of 12,398 children, we analyzed the role of ethnicity in physical and psychosocial development of Mapuche and nonindigenous Chilean toddlers (age 2.5 years), taking into account sociodemographic and caregiver characteristics. As indicated by our univariate analysis, the Mapuche developmental niche was characterized by lower income, lower maternal education, poorer quality of the home environment, longer breastfeeding, and higher parental stress. Physical development showed higher body mass index. Mapuche children showed less externalizing problems. We then analyzed the incremental contribution of ethnicity in a series of hierarchical regressions with the second wave of developmental measurements (age 4.5 years) as outcome variables, showing a significant but modest incremental contribution of ethnicity to the prediction of children's development between 2.5 and 4.5 years of age. Controlling for environmental variables, Mapuche showed less externalizing and internalizing, behavior problems. Socioeconomic status, quality of the home environment, and parenting stress were stronger predictors of socioemotional development than ethnicity per se.

Maternal Parenting Stress, Child Exuberance, and Preschoolers' Behavior Problems.

This study investigated whether child exuberance, an aspect of temperament related to emotion regulation, moderates the well-documented association between high parenting stress and increased risk for internalizing and externalizing problems during the preschool years. At 42months of age child exuberance was observed in 256 children (47% girls) and maternal self-reports on parenting stress were obtained. At 48months internalizing and externalizing problems were assessed through reports from both parents. Indeed, higher maternal parenting stress increased the risk for internalizing problems, and this association was more pronounced among children with high levels of exuberance. Existent emotion regulation difficulties in highly exuberant children may further heighten the risk conveyed by an unfavorable caregiving environment for developing internalizing problems.

Family Imprisonment, Maternal Parenting Stress and Its Impact on Mother-Child Relationship Satisfaction

Parental imprisonment, and more recently other close family imprisonment, has been associated with long-term harms to children. A number of researchers have proposed that parenting stress caused by family imprisonment could impact on caregivers’ ability to offer a secure parent–child relationship after a close family member is imprisoned. Such relationship problems might then mediate further harms to children. The Family Stress-Proximal Process (FSPP) model conceptualises family imprisonment as an ongoing stressor that influences relational processes in families. Using HILDA, a nationally-representative Australian survey, we test key aspects of this theoretical model for women affected by close family imprisonment. We demonstrate that recent close family imprisonment does indeed significantly increase risks of high maternal parenting stress. Women affected by this high parenting stress are also significantly more likely to report feeling less satisfied with their relationship with their child one year later. Nonetheless, only a third of women experiences high parenting stress after close family imprisonment. And, women who experience close family imprisonment without high parenting stress do not have a greater risk of subsequent relationship dissatisfaction. We conclude that the prevention or reduction of parenting stress in families affected by close family imprisonment could have a protective effect on subsequent mother-child relationships.

Association between behavioral problems and parenting stress in preschool children

Objective To analyze the relationship between parenting stress in parents and behavioral problems in preschool children, to provide scientific basis for prevention and intervention of preschool children′s behavioral problems. Methods A sample of 208 preschool children were selected from Changsha. Parents were invited to complete the Conners Child Behavior Checklist (Parent Question) and Parenting Stress Index (PSI). Results The proportion of preschool children with behavioral problems in this surveyed sample was 19.71% (41/208). The rate of higher level parenting stress was 19.71% (41/208). Total parenting stress scores in preschool children with behavioral problems were 83.46±16.76, which were higher than the scores 77.07±15.02 in those without behavioral problems (t=-2.38, P<0.05), and difficult child scales stress score in preschool children with behavioral problems were 29.95±6.44, which were higher than the scores 26.71±6.10 in those without behavioral problems (t=-3.02, P<0.05). Total parenting stress scores was positively related with each of dimension of behavioral problems (r=0.14-0.42, P<0.05 or 0.01). Conclusion The behavioral problems is positively related with parenting stress in preschool children. Therefore, the parents of preschool children should adjust their parenting stress, so as to create a warm growing environment for their children, thus reducing the behavioral problems of preschool children. Key words: Preschool children; Behavioral problems; Parenting stress

Associations between chronic caregiving stress and T cell markers implicated in immunosenescence

Chronic psychological stress is associated with accelerated biological aging, immune dysfunction, and premature morbidity and mortality. Changes in the relative proportions of T cell subpopulations are thought to be a characteristic of immunological aging; however, understanding of whether these changes are associated with chronic psychological stress is incomplete. This study investigated associations between chronic caregiving stress and distributions of T cell phenotypes in a sample of high stress mothers of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (caregivers; n = 91) and low stress mothers of neurotypical children (controls; n = 88). Immune markers assessed were naïve (CD45RA + CD62L+), central memory (CD45RA-CD62L+), and effector memory (CD45RA-CD62L-) CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. We also examined the ratio of effector to naïve (E:N) CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. In models adjusted for age, body mass index, race/ethnicity, and antidepressant use, caregivers displayed higher percentages of effector memory CD8+ and CD4+ T cells as well as lower percentages of naïve CD8+ T cells and central memory CD8+ and CD4+ T cells compared to controls. Caregivers also displayed significantly higher E:N ratios for both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. These findings were also independent of cytomegalovirus infection status. Furthermore, higher parental stress, across both groups, was related to several immune parameters. These findings provide preliminary evidence that chronic parental caregiving stress is associated with changes in relative proportions of T cell subpopulations that are consistent with accelerated immunological aging.

Predictors of Dropout in Family-Based Psychosocial Treatment for Pediatric Bipolar Disorder: An Exploratory Study

Family-based psychosocial treatments have been developed to address the significant impairments in psychosocial functioning among youth with pediatric bipolar disorder (PBD), yet factors impacting engagement in these treatments have yet to be extensively studied. Early termination from treatment may lead to negative outcomes among youth with PBD. Thus, the primary aim of this exploratory study was to identify predictors and moderators of treatment dropout in PBD. Drawing from the child attrition literature, this study examined characteristics likely to be associated with dropout in families affected by PBD, including potential targets of treatment. Using Cox proportional hazards regressions, we explored the impact of modifiable parent, child, and family characteristics (i.e., parent stress, family coping, child symptoms) and stable demographic characteristics (i.e., family income, ethnic minority status) on dropout among 59 youth aged 7 to 13 who participated in a randomized clinical trial comparing a manualized psychotherapy for PBD (child- and family-focused cognitive behavioral therapy; CFF-CBT) versus treatment as usual (TAU). Specifically, we explored whether dropout was related to baseline levels and changes in these characteristics over the course of treatment in CFF-CBT versus TAU. Findings provide preliminary support for high parental stress as a predictor of dropout across treatments and low baseline parent coping as a predictor of retention in CFF-CBT specifically. Worsening of child depression symptoms over treatment predicted greater likelihood of dropout in CFF-CBT. Finally, improvement in children’s global functioning was associated with reduced dropout across treatments. Results have important implications for tailoring interventions for PBD.

Parental stress and air pollution increase childhood asthma in China

BackgroundAlthough air pollution and social stress may independently increase childhood asthma, little is known on their synergistic effect on asthma, particularly in China with high levels of stress and air pollution. ObjectivesTo examine associations between exposure to a combination of parental stress and air pollution and asthma prevalence in children. MethodsWe conducted a cohort study of 2406 preschool children in Changsha (2011–2012). A questionnaire was used to collect children’s lifetime prevalence of asthma and their parental stress. Parental socioeconomic and psychosocial stresses were respectively defined in terms of housing size and difficulty concentrating. Children’s exposure to ambient air pollutants was estimated using concentrations measured at monitoring stations. Associations between exposure to parental stress and air pollution and childhood asthma were estimated by multiple logistic regression models using odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI). ResultsLife time prevalence of asthma in preschool children (6.7%) was significantly associated with parental socioeconomic and psychosocial stresses with OR (95% CI) respectively 1.48 (1.02–2.16) and 1.64 (1.00–2.71). Asthma was also associated with exposure to air pollutants, with adjusted OR (95% CI) during prenatal and postnatal periods respectively 1.43 (1.10–1.86) and 1.35 (1.02–1.79) for SO2 and 1.61 (1.19–2.18) and 1.76 (1.19–2.61) for NO2. The association with air pollution was significant only in children exposed to high parental stress, the association with parental stress was significant only in children exposed to high air pollution, and the association was the strongest in children exposed to a combination of parental stress and air pollution. Sensitivity analysis showed that the synergistic effects of parental stress and air pollution on childhood asthma were stronger in boys. ConclusionsParental stress and air pollution were synergistically associated with increased childhood asthma, indicating a common biological effect of parental stress and air pollution during both prenatal and postnatal periods.

Brief Report: Impact of Challenging Behavior on Parenting Stress in Mothers and Fathers of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders.

Challenging behaviors are a known predictor of high parenting stress in families of children with autism spectrum disorders. However, few studies have evaluated the effect of reducing challenging behaviors on parenting stress. The purpose of our study was to (a) examine the impact of reducing the frequency and severity of challenging behaviors on parenting stress and (b) compare the effects of family-centered support and parent education on changes in parenting stress. Both high severity of autistic symptoms and of challenging behaviors were predictors of parenting stress. Furthermore, receiving family-centered support were associated with larger reductions in parenting stress. Overall, our results suggest that reducing challenging behaviors with family-centered support may be preferable to produce collateral reductions in parenting stress.

Intergenerational transmission of harsh discipline: The moderating role of parenting stress and parent gender

The present study examined the intergenerational transmission of harsh discipline (psychological aggression and corporal punishment) and the moderating effects of parenting stress and parent gender in Chinese societies. Utilizing a sample of 634 Chinese father–mother dyads with preschoolers, findings revealed that both mothers’ and fathers’ harsh discipline were transmitted across generations and the strength of transmission varied by the severity of harsh discipline and the parent gender. For both mothers and fathers, high parenting stress intensified the intergenerational transmission of psychological aggression and corporal punishment, whereas low parenting stress weakened the transmission of psychological aggression and even disrupted the transmission of corporal punishment. Moreover, the moderating effects of parenting stress on the transmission were stronger for mothers than for fathers. Findings from the present study highlight the importance of considering how the proximal environmental factors (such as parenting stress) may influence the intergenerational transmission of harsh discipline.

Struggling with one’s own parenting after an upbringing with substance abusing parents

ABSTRACTAim: To add to our knowledge concerning the key elements involved in the individual’s experience of growing up with substance abusing parents and the resulting challenges this involved for their own parenthood.Methods: In-depth interviews were conducted with 19 parents who had participated in a mental health intervention programme. All had experienced substance abusing parents in their family of origin. Qualitative content analysis was used to analyse the data. They also completed a self-report questionnaire assessing their attachment style.Result: Participants reported a high incidence of emotional abuse and neglect coupled with inadequate support from the community. Their own parental role was influenced by high parental stress and a majority had an insecure attachment style.Conclusions: All participants had experienced a very difficult childhood which was reinforced by the fact that they received little support from society. Their childhood experience and the resulting challenges that this created in their own parenting role could negatively influence their own children’s ability to form a secure psychosocial development. It is therefore important to develop instruments that can help to identify children who were raised in misuse families in order to accommodate the transgenerational effects of growing up with substance abusing parents.

Chronic parenting stress and mood reactivity: The role of sleep quality.

Sleep is a basic biological process supporting emotion regulation. The emotion regulation function of sleep may be particularly important in the context of chronic stress. To better understand how chronic stress and sleep interact to predict mood, 66 parents of children with autism completed daily diaries assessing parenting stress, negative mood, and sleep quality for 6 consecutive days. Hierarchical linear modelling revealed that daily negative mood was predicted by between-person differences in parenting stress and between-person differences in sleep efficiency. Further, between-person differences in sleep efficiency and within-person differences in sleep satisfaction moderated the impact of stress on mood. These data suggest that sleep disturbances may exacerbate the association between stress and mood in the context of chronic parenting stress. Further, high parenting stress appears to heighten the impact of transient sleep disturbances on mood.

Stress, competence, and parental educational styles in victims and aggressors of bullying and cyberbullying.

The family can be a protective/risk factor for violence. The study analyzes differences in family variables (parental stress, parental competence and parenting styles) among severe student victims, aggressors, cybervictims, and cyberaggressors (who have very frequently suffered or carried out bullying/cyberbullying behaviors in the past year) and those who have neither suffered nor carried out any aggressive behavior or only occasionally. Participants were 1,993 students in the 5th-6th grade (9-13 years old). Victims and aggressors of bullying had parents with higher levels of parental stress, who used more authoritarian educational styles (low affection, coercive discipline, high control), and more permissive practices (high affection/overprotection, low demand/control); parents of aggressors also had a lower level of parental competence. Cybervictims had parents with higher parental stress who used more permissive educational styles. Cyberaggressors had parents with a low level of parental competence. The family context is relevant for bullying/cyberbullying, but family variables have more influence on bullying than on cyberbullying.

Parenting stress among parents of children with congenital diaphragmatic hernia

PurposeThe aim of this study was to examine parental stress among parents of children with congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH).MethodsBetween 2005 and 2009, a total of 51 children with CDH were treated at Astrid Lindgren Children’s Hospital. The survival rate at discharge was 86% and long-term survival rate 80%. One parent each of the long-term survivors (41 children) was included in the present study, and 34 parents (83%) agreed to participate. Participants received the Swedish Parenthood Stress Questionnaire (SPSQ). The questionnaire was supplemented by data from case records.ResultsParents of children with CDH, who had been supported by ECMO or had a long hospital stay, showed significantly higher overall parental stress. Mothers scored an overall higher parental stress compared with fathers. A prenatal diagnosis of CDH or lower parental educational level resulted in significantly higher parental stress in some of the factors.ConclusionsParental stress in parents of children with CDH seems to increase with the severity of the child’s malformation. Mothers tend to score higher parental stress than fathers.

Interactions between MAOA gene polymorphism and maternal parenting in predicting externalizing and internalizing problems and social competence among Chinese children: Testing the genetic vulnerability and differential susceptibility models

AbstractThe present study aimed to test whether monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene polymorphism was a marker of the genetic vulnerability model or the differential susceptibility model by investigating the interaction of MAOA gene polymorphism with maternal parenting on externalizing and internalizing problems and social competence among Chinese children. Participants were 290 children and their parents in China. MAOA genotypes were ascertained by polymerase chain reaction amplification. Mothers reported their parenting stress and engagement in parent–child activities when the child was 6 months old. Children's behavioral problems and social competence were rated by mothers and fathers at 48 months old. The results showed that MAOA genotypes interacted with maternal parenting stress in predicting boys' internalizing problems. Also, MAOA genotypes interacted with maternal engagement in parent–child activities in predicting boys' social competence. The analyses of regions of significance and the proportion of interaction index indicated that boys with the low‐activity genotype were at risk for (a) high internalizing problems under high maternal parenting stress and (b) low social competence if mothers displayed a low level of maternal engagement. No significant interaction effects were found among girls. The results suggested that the MAOA gene might be a marker of the genetic vulnerability model among Chinese boys.Highlights We evaluated whether MAOA gene was a marker of the genetic vulnerability model or the differential susceptibility model by investigating the interaction of MAOA gene polymorphism with maternal parenting on behavioral problems and social competence among 4‐year‐old Chinese children. The results of regions of significance and the proportion of interaction index indicated that boys with the low‐activity genotype were at risk of high internalizing problems or low social competence with high maternal parenting stress or low engagement. No significant interaction effects were found among girls. The results indicated that MAOA gene might be a marker of the genetic vulnerability model rather than the differential susceptibility model.

乳幼児をもつ親の育児感情と自分の役割配分と幸福感の関連

The hypothesis that parents with infants maintain or improve their well-being by modifying the allocation of five self-roles (parental, professional, spousal, regional, and individual) through childcare-related emotions was investigated. Participants were parents of infants (N=859), who responded to a web-based questionnaire survey. Results indicated differences between fathers and mothers, as well as between single- and dual-career families. Modifications in role allocation resulting from childcare-related emotions influenced parental well-being: parenting satisfaction improved parental role allocation in all three groups, except in dual-career fathers; parenting stress and satisfaction were associated with professional role allocation in dual-career mothers; and high parenting satisfaction and stress were positively associated with spousal role allocation in single-career fathers. The hypothesis of this study was supported in three groups, excluding dual-career fathers. The reasons for this exception are discussed. Findings also suggested that fathers' active involvement in child rearing enhanced the well-being of parents with infants.

INFLUENCIA DE FACTORES FAMILIARES Y PERSONALES EN LA EVOLUCIÓN NEGATIVA DEL TDAH

Abstract.INFLUENCE OF PERSONAL AND FAMILY FACTORS ON THE NEGATIVE COURSE OF ADHDObjective. To study the effect of the cumulative adversity on the course of ADHD symptoms, associated problems and dysfunctionality of ADHD children. Method. 61 families of children with a clinical diagnosis of ADHD combined subtype were evaluated on two different times (Time I: mean age = 8.7; Time II: mean age = 11). We developed a personal risk index (high levels of ADHD symptoms, high number of associated problems, presence of oppositionism, stressful child characteristics and family history of ADHD), a family risk index (presence of mothers’ psychopathology, high parental stress and dysfunctional discipline style) and a total risk index. Results. The overall risk index significantly predicted symptoms of ADHD, comorbid problems and dysfunction in adolescence. The personal risk index was more related to future externalizing problems while family risk index was more related to the development of inattention symptoms. Conclusions. There is a cumulative adversity effect of family and personal factors that negatively influences the course of ADHD.Keywords. ADHD. Comorbidities. Longitudinal study. Risk Index.Resumen.Objetivo. Estudiar la influencia del efecto acumulado de riesgo en la disfuncionalidad general y en la evolución de los síntomas de TDAH y problemas asociados en niños con TDAH. Método. Se evaluó a 61 familias de niños con un diagnóstico clínico de TDAH subtipo combinado en dos momentos temporales con una diferencia de dos años y medio entre ambas (media de edad Fase I = 8.7, media de edad Fase II = 11 años). Se creó un índice de riesgo personal (altos niveles de sintomatología de TDAH, elevado número de problemas asociados, presencia de oposicionismo, características estresantes del niño y antecedentes familiares de TDAH), un índice de riesgo familiar (presencia de psicopatología de la madre, elevado estrés parental y estilo de disciplina disfuncional) y un índice de riesgo total. Resultados. El índice de riesgo general predijo significativamente la sintomatología de TDAH, los problemas comórbidos y la disfuncionalidad en la adolescencia. El índice de riesgo personal estuvo más relacionado con los problemas externalizantes futuros. Mientras que el índice de riesgo familiar estuvo más relacionado con la evolución de la sintomatología de inatención. Conclusiones. Existe un efecto de riesgo acumulado de factores personales y familiares que influye negativamente en la evolución del TDAH.Palabras clave. Comorbilidades. Estudio longitudinal. Índice de riesgo. TDAH.

Sense of coherence in pregnant and new mothers – A longitudinal study of a national cohort of Swedish speaking women

BackgroundPrevious research shows inconsistent results about the stability of SOC during the childbearing period, and few studies have focused on longitudinal measures. There are contradictory results regarding the association between SOC and birth outcome. The link between levels of SOC and parental stress needs to be further explored. AimThe aim of this study was to investigate changes in SOC from early pregnancy to one year after birth and associations with background characteristics, birth outcome and parental stress. MethodsA longitudinal survey of a national cohort of Swedish speaking women during 3 weeks in 1999–2000. Data were collected by questionnaires in early pregnancy, 2 months and 1 year after birth. ResultsSOC increased from pregnancy to 2 months after birth but decreased 1 year after birth. SOC was associated with women's background characteristics, emotional wellbeing and attitudes, but not with labour outcome. Women with low SOC reported higher parental stress after one year. ConclusionSense of coherence is not stable during the childbearing period and is associated with women's sociodemographic background, emotional health and attitudes, but not with reproductive history or birth outcome. Parental stress is negatively correlated with SOC, and some important characteristics are similar in women having low SOC and high parental stress. Identifying women with low SOC in early pregnancy could be a means to prevent later parental stress.