High Machiavellians Research Articles

Struggling or Liberating? The Effects of Machiavellianism on Break-Up Distress.

Negative emotions caused by break-up are the key work of university students' psychological intervention. It is important to explore the specific factors of break-up distress for university students' psychological intervention. Therefore, we investigated 869 university students to examine the effect of Machiavellianism and psychological capital on break-up distress, as well as its gender difference. The results indicated that high Machiavellians experience more break-up distress. Moreover, through structural equation models, we found that as for female university students, psychological capital mediated the relationship between Machiavellianism and break-up distress. However, as for male university students, the mediation effect was not significant. It means that for female university students, psychological capital acted as the mechanism to connect Machiavellianism and break-up distress.

Managers’ presentation preferences for aggregation: the role of internal reporting outcome, purpose, and Machiavellianism

ABSTRACT We focus on a flexible internal reporting setting and conduct an experiment to examine profit centre managers’ presentation preferences for aggregation when reporting performance-target deviations to superiors. Managers can use the internal reporting flexibility as an informational tactic to manage superiors’ perceptions of managers’ performance in ways that are consistent with mental accounting predictions. We examine if profit centre managers’ presentation preferences for aggregation depend on the internal reporting outcome and purpose as well as their level of Machiavellianism. Results show that profit centre managers’ presentation preferences for aggregation when reporting mixed outcomes are consistent with mental accounting predictions. We also find that profit centre managers’ use of impression management strategies is consistent with mental accounting predictions when the internal reporting purpose is for target revision and when high Machiavellians are reporting a mixed gain. Our results have implications for organisations in their decision to include stronger and more formalised control and governance mechanisms in order to inhibit profit centre managers’ use of internal report to influence superiors’ perceptions.

Borderline Machiavellianism: A Call for Reclassification of High and Low Machiavellianism

The MACH IV scale is the primary tool used in Machiavellian studies for identifying high and low Machiavellians. While this classification has been useful, the arbitrary nature of classifying low and high Machiavellians on the cut-off point of 60 is leading to confusion and ambiguity. Our study calls for academic discourse to investigate and debate on those managers who are projecting the characteristics of both low and high Machiavellian attributes. To provide greater clarity for identifying and refining those characteristics of low vs high Machiavellians, this study attempts to understand those managers bordering on high Machiavellianism in the MACH IV score. We use in-depth interviews to triangulate the MACH IV survey responses. The study was conducted in the construction industry in Sri Lanka where Machiavellian leaders are popular and sought after. Study findings reveal that borderline high Machs express both high and low Mach characteristics and their behavior may be influenced by cultural and religious values.

Differential benefits of social resources for low versus high Machiavellians: A three-study constructive replication

The effects of social resources are well established. Yet, we know little about why these effects occur. Drawing on the conservation of resources theory, we examined the possibility that work engagement would carry the effect of social resources on work performance. We further posited that Machiavellianism would interact with social resources to influence work engagement and through it, work performance. Supported by a mini meta-analysis, we found that across three samples, diverse in the operationalization of social resources and national context (i.e., the United States, France, and Malaysia), social resources positively associated with work performance. Results also indicated that work engagement carried the effect of social resources. We further found that the effects of social resources were less pronounced at high levels of Machiavellianism.

ПСИХОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ ПРОФИЛЬ МАКИАВЕЛЛИСТОВ В РАМКАХ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ СИМПТОМОКОМПЛЕКСА ЖЕРТВ МАНИПУЛЯТИВНОГО ПОВЕДЕНИЯ

Fraud is widespread and every day it is more and more creative. Machiavellianism is of great interest for the symptom complex of fraud victims and resistance to manipulative behavior. The authors studied the psychological profile of the low and high machiavellians. The first hypothesis was that low machiavellians have different level of hostility, development of such traits as Consent and Conscientiousness, moral identity, anti-social creativity, and thinking styles, than high machiavellians. The second hypothesis said that machiavellians of different levels have different values. According to the hypothesis, low machiavellians value social focus, while high machiavellians value personal focus. The sample consisted of 150 students (the average age was 18.8 ±1.50). We used the fol-lowing adapted questionnaires: aggression (A. Bass, M.Perry), "NEO-FFI" of the question-naire "NEO PI-R" (P. Costa, R. MacRae), "Mac-IV", behavioral features of malevolent crea-tivity (N. Hao et al.), PVQ-R (Sh. Schwartz), CTI (Epstein). The questionnaire By K. Aquina and A. Reed II (2002) was used to diagnose the moral identity. Low machiavellians have significantly higher (according to the Mann-Whitney criterion) Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, moral identity, higher values of Social focus, General Scale of Constructive Thinking, Naive optimism and significantly lower anti-social creativity, higher values of Personal focus, Categorical thinking, hostility. Naive optimism significantly positively correlated with the values of Achievement, Security – personal, Security – Public, interpersonal Conformity, Universalism concern for nature, Benevolence as the sense of duty". According to regression analysis, the predictors of Naive optimism were the values Security – personal and Security – public. We have compiled a psychological profile of young people with low values of Machiavel-lianism. It includes such features as the importance of moral identity, low hostility, control of one's own impulses, cooperation with other people, consideration of the interests of others, overcoming personal interests for the sake of the interests of others, self-restraint and order. They will not use their own creativity to harm other people; they are able to adapt their way of thinking to the requirements of the situation. The peculiarity of low machiavellians is a high naive optimism, that is situational, and combined with the significance of the values of per-sonal and public security. Naive optimism can manifest itself in situations where somebody can offer something that is meaningful to a person with a naive optimism mindset. In such situations, it is possible to use unconstructive strategies, and be unable to recognize the threat. The listed set of characteristics creates a risk of being manipulated by fraudsters. The results show that thinking styles, values, and levels of self-control are important for the study of manipulative behavior victims and the study of resistance to such behavior in people of different age.

Machiavellianism in a Synergistic Tax Climate

This research examines the personal (i.e., Machiavellianism) and situational factors (i.e., tax climate) that are believed to be psychologically salient aspects in tax compliance. To the best of our knowledge, no research has been carried out to investigate the interaction effect of the two factors. This study uses a paper-and-pencil laboratory experiment 2x2 between-subject factorial design that involved 158 participants. The results indicate that a taxpayer who has a low Machiavellianism score or who is in a high synergistic tax climate reports a higher level of income. In the high synergistic tax climate, where tax norms apply, personal ethics do not play a significant role in tax compliance decisions. Where the synergistic relationship between taxpayer and authorities is low, personal ethics play an important role, i.e., low Machiavellians report a higher reported income than high Machiavellians do. This research contributes to the literature that deviates from the traditional model of tax compliance. Taxpayers are not always rational, but they might pay tax for reasons other than financial motives (Alm, 1991, 2018), that is, personal ethics in this study. This research implies the need for policymakers to consider other approaches rather than only relying on audits and fines.

Political skill camouflages Machiavellianism: Career role performance and organizational misbehavior at short and long tenure

On the basis of socioanalytic theory (Hogan & Shelton, 1998) and mimicry-deception theory (Jones, 2014), we hypothesized that political skill would effectively mask Machiavellianism (socioanalytic theory) with consequences for coworker perceived career role performance and actual counterproductive work behavior at low and high levels of job tenure (mimicry-deception theory). We tested our hypotheses in a triangular multisource design in two complementary studies comprised of both target workers and coworkers with a total of N = 1438 participants.In Study 1, we found that when political skill was high, targets received high career role performance ratings from coworkers, and this was also the case when targets had high levels of Machiavellianism (socioanalytic masking effect). For targets with low political skill, the career role performance ratings of high Machiavellians was low at long tenure. The results of Study 2 partly disconfirmed mimicry-deception theory: Individuals high in Machiavellianism and high in political skill did not tend to avoid engaging in overtly mean behaviors toward others and extracting organizational resources at short tenure. Implications and limitations are discussed.

Impacts of peers’ unethical behavior on employees’ ethical intention: Moderated mediation by Machiavellian orientation

AbstractResearch suggests a direct negative relationship between peers’ unethical behavior and employees’ ethical intention. But several possible mechanisms might explain this relationship in more detail. For example, Machiavellianism is a personality trait characterized by interpersonal manipulation and the use of unethical means to achieve certain self‐interested ends, whether useful or pleasant. This article adopts an Aristotelian understanding of philia, related to three goods on which human relationships rest: useful, pleasant, and honest. We propose that Machiavellianism, a self‐interested, pragmatic personality orientation, might explicate the relationship between peers’ unethical behavior and ethical intention. The results of a structural equation model applied to a sample of 436 banking employees in Spain reveals that Machiavellianism partially mediates the relationship between peers’ unethical behavior and employees’ ethical intention. We also find that with a greater level of peers’ unethical behavior, the negative effect of Machiavellianism on ethical intention increases, and that when peers’ unethical behavior is nonexistent, the negative effect of Machiavellianism on ethical intention disappears. These findings advance current literature by revealing that unethical peers can indirectly influence ethical intention, through shaping Machiavellianism. Our study is also the first to show that pairing high Machiavellians with ethical peers can help to cancel out the negative influence of Machiavellianism on ethical intention.

Machiavellianism, social norms, and taxpayer compliance

This study is the first to examine the relationships among Machiavellianism, social norms and taxpayer intentions to fraudulently overstate their deductions. We theorize and empirically document that (a) high Machiavellian taxpayers report significantly less ethical social norms, suggesting that reported social norms are influenced by cognitive biases such as social projection and Machiavellian cynicism; (b) reported social norms are, in general, significantly associated with tax evasion intentions; (c) social norms partially mediate the relationship between Machiavellianism and evasion intentions. Our findings imply that experimental research that controls for key personality traits such as Machiavellianism will be necessary to test the effectiveness of potential interventions designed to enhance social norms and tax compliance. Our findings also raise questions regarding the validity of certain social norm measures used in recent studies, particularly in the case of high Machiavellians. In contrast to much prior research, gender was not associated with the likelihood of committing tax fraud in our multivariate models, suggesting that the higher levels of tax compliance often associated with females may be eroding.

Network-building behavioral tendencies, range, and promotion speed

We studied 459 Ukrainian civil servants to determine how career network-building behavioral tendencies relate to network range and promotion speed. We identify two main behavioral tendencies for initiating social relationships: (a) networking within formal structured groups organized around activities created specifically to encourage members to form personal bonds (structured foci) and (b) individually driven networking outside these structured foci. The study shows that individually driven networking is related to broader network range, while structured foci networking has an inverted-U relationship to network range. The optimal networking for range involves a moderate level of structural foci networking and high levels of individually driven networking. Broad network range is related to faster promotion speed to higher organizational levels. Extroverts have a tendency toward individually driven networking, while high Machiavellians have a tendency toward both individually driven and structured foci networking.

Moderating Effect of Machiavellianism and Perceived Similarity on Cyber Incivility & its Outcomes

This study examined the moderating effects of Machiavellianism and perceived similarity to supervisor on the relationship between cyber incivility and two responses - revenge and avoidance. Our results, based on a survey of 192 employees, showed that cyber incivility was positively related to direct and indirect revenge. Machiavellianism significantly moderated the relationship between cyber incivility, and revenge and avoidance. High Machiavellians seek direct and indirect revenge against their supervisor, while low Machiavellians use avoidance as coping strategy against cyber incivility. As well, the perceived similarity between supervisor and subordinate has a significant moderating effect on the relationship between cyber incivility and (i) direct revenge, and (ii) avoidance. Individuals with high perceived similarity to supervisor used avoidance behaviors, while those with low perceived similarity engaged themselves in direct revenge to deal with cyber incivility. Implications of our findings are discussed.

Effects of ethical context and Machiavellianism on attitudes toward earnings management in China

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of Chinese industry accountants' perceptions of the ethical context in their organization and Machiavellianism on attitudes toward earnings management.Design/methodology/approachThe research is based on a survey of professional accountants employed by companies in Mainland China.FindingsThe results indicate that perceptions of a strong organizational emphasis on serving the public interest (benevolent/cosmopolitan climate) significantly reduced professional accountants' willingness to condone accounting earnings management. Professionally certified accountants also judged accounting earnings management more harshly. Consistent with our expectations, high Machiavellians judged earnings management more leniently, although this effect was only marginally significant in the case of accounting earnings management. In contrast to prior studies of earnings management in the USA, the participants judged accounting earnings management more leniently, but judged operating earnings management more harshly.Originality/valueThis is the first study to document that an organizational emphasis on serving the public interest can restrain aggressive behavior among industry accountants. Claims of serving the public interest in accounting have traditionally focused on the role of the independent auditor in protecting the public from misleading financial reporting. The results indicate that appeals to public interest obligations also have resonance for professional accountants in industry. The fact that certified accountants were less tolerant of accounting earnings management also has important implications, demonstrating the practical value of professional certification programs and their associated training and socialization processes. The contrast observed between the ethical judgments of our Chinese participants and US accountants surveyed in previous studies raises important questions for further research.

Effects of ethical context on conflict and commitment among Chinese accountants

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to addresses the impact of organizational ethical context (ethical climate and ethical culture) and Machiavellianism on organizational‐professional conflict (OPC) and affective organizational commitment (OC) among Chinese accountants. The paper also aims to test for interactive effects of ethical context and Machiavellianism.Design/methodology/approachThe paper is based on a field survey of 89 professional accountants employed by companies operating in Mainland China.FindingsTwo aspects of the organizational ethical culture, expectations of obedience to authority and strong ethical norms/incentives, emerged as the dominant influences on both OPC and affective commitment. Strong negative correlations are observed between OPC and OC, and between Machiavellianism and OC. Contrary to expectations, the organizational ethical context had the greatest impact on OC among high Machiavellians. For low Machiavellians, OPC fully mediated the relationship between ethical context and OC, but no such mediation effects are found for high Machiavellians.Originality/valueThis is the first study of the relationships among ethical context, OPC and OC among industry accountants in China, and the first study of the effects of Machiavellianism on these relationships. The results generally support our contention that organizational ethical context will be a key determinant of OPC and OC. The fact that weaker ethical cultures were strongly associated with increased conflict and decreased commitment suggests that managers of accounting/auditing departments should take a proactive approach to developing and nurturing positive or supportive cultures. The differences in results for high and low Machiavellians also raise interesting questions that should be addressed in future research.

Social responsibility, Machiavellianism and tax avoidance

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate the effects of attitudes toward the perceived importance of corporate ethics and social responsibility, and Machiavellianism, a general measure of the propensity for manipulative and deceitful behaviour, on tax professionals' willingness to participate in aggressive tax avoidance schemes of corporate clients.Design/methodology/approach – The paper is based on a survey of tax professionals in Hong Kong.Findings – The paper finds that Machiavellianism affects tax advisors' expressed viewpoints toward the importance of corporate ethics and social responsibility, which affect professional judgements toward aggressive tax minimisation. As anticipated, high Machiavellians are more likely to endorse the traditional “stockholder view” of corporate responsibility (which holds that corporations have little responsibility beyond maximising their profits), and less likely to support the “stakeholder view” (which recognises corporate responsibilities to a broader r...

Machiavellianism Effect on Accounting Ethics Training Programs

This study investigates whether the outcome of an accounting ethics training program is affected by the participants' Machiavellian scores. Further, it is investigated whether the Machiavellian effect is moderated by gender and superior pressure. The test results indicated that low Machiavellians choose ethical actions more often than high Machiavellians do. Also, it is found that males with low Machiavellian scores respond more positively to the training than females with low Machiavellian scores do. The interactive effect of superior pressure was found insignificant.

Situational and Dispositional Predictors of Performance: A Test of the Hypothesized Machiavellianism Structure Interaction Among Sales Persons1

The hypothesized interaction found in laboratory studies between situational structure and Machiavellianism was tested on working samples of sales representatives. The results suggested that success or failure of Machiavellian tactics used in sales organizations appears to depend on the organization's structure: In loosely structured sales organizations high Machiavellians significantly outperformed low Machiavellians, but in tightly structured sales organizations, high Machiavellians failed to outperform low Machiavellians. These results and implications for future research are discussed.

Social Perception as a Function of Machiavellianism

Abstract Using a hypothetical situation describing a stimulus person who succeeds or fails to win a desired promotion through merit or influence, we tested the hypotheses that greater ethical sensitivity in their evaluation of the stimulus person would be displayed by low compared with high Machiavellians and by female compared with male subjects. The experiment employed a 2 × 2 × 2× 2 (Subject's Machiavellanism × Subject's Sex × Stimulus Person's Merit vs. Influence × Stimulus Person's Success vs. Failure) factorial design, with 10 subjects per cell. The dependent measures were ratings of the stimulus person on intelligence, morality, and likability. The stimulus person with merit was rated more favorably on all three dimensions than the person with influence. Female subjects showed a greater ethical sensitivity in their evaluations compared with male subjects. The expectation that low would show greater ethical sensitivity than high Machiavellians was supported only in the case of female subjects; a som...

Beauty and the Machiavellian

The purpose of this experiment was to measure the effects of source physical attractiveness and receiver Machiavellian tendency on receiver attitude change. Subjects were asked to read a persuasive message written by a physically attractive or unattractive source. High and low Machiavellian subjects were randomly assigned to the two attractiveness conditions. Pre‐ and post‐manipulation measures were made to assess attitudes toward the persuasive message. A significant attractiveness effect was obtained—the attractive source being found more persuasive. Moreover, a significant Machiavellian × attractiveness interaction effect was obtained. While low‐Machiavellian subjects were greatly influenced by the attractive source, high Machiavellians were not.

Machiavellianism and leadership.

The relevance of Machiavellian ism as a personality style for leadership was studied in the context of experimental task groups. The subjects were 84 male undergraduate students. The experimental design assigned 14 high Machiavellians (Machs) and 14 low Machs as leaders of task groups who constructed toy cube bridges under either a favorable or an unfavorable situation. In the favorable situation, the leader was presented to the group as technically qualified, and his authority was emphasized (high leader power). Task performance was evaluated according to a single criterion (structured task). In the unfavorable situation, the leader's qualities or special status were not emphasized (low power), and task performance was evaluated according to multiple criteria (unstructured task). No performance differences were found between high Mach and low Mach led groups. However, significant differences were observed with regard to group interactions. High Mach leaders gave more orders and were less involved in reducing tension. They were also less directive and requested more assistance when the situation was unfavorable, whereas the low Machs' behavior across situations remained unchanged. This study focused on the relevance of Machiavellianism as a personality style for leadership behavior. The concept of Machiavellianism, as introduced by Christie and Geis (1970), pertains to cognitive agreement with the basic ideas of Nicollo Machiavelli, for example, mistrust in human nature, lack of conventional morality, opportunism, and lack of affect in interpersonal relationships. People who scored highly on standard measures of Machiavellianism (high Machs) were found to have a strong tendency to manipulate other people (Geis & Christie, Note 1). In an experimental bargaining coalition game, high Machs manifested better sense of timing and adjusted their acts to current circumstances. They also appeared to initiate and control the structure of group interaction. High Machs manifested higher effectiveness under ambiguous, rather than clear, situations. They also were found to be detached from ego-involving elements in bar

Machiavellianism and Self-Disclosure

Summary Three separate experiments (total n = 109 male university students) eliciting actual, intentional, and simulated data tested the hypothesis that Ss characterized as Machiavellian would adopt a pattern of self-disclosure calculated to increase the probability of personal success, while non-Machiavellians would not. Ss self-disclosed or indicated topics on which they would disclose to a bogus other who was described as either a future (a) partner or (b) opponent. Results indicated that High Machiavellians disclosed or agreed to disclose significantly more information in cooperative as compared to competitive conditions in all three experiments. However, Low Machiavellians disclosed more under competition than cooperation in the actual disclosure experiment, while yielding no reliable differences between conditions in the intentional and simulation experiments.