Higher Levels Of Aerobic Fitness Research Articles

Aerobic Fitness Status and Out-of-School Lifestyle of Rural Children in America and Russia

This study compares the aerobic fitness status of a sample of rural American and Russian children, and examines these findings in light of their out of school physical activity participation. Ten and eleven year old (N = 415) children from both countries completed a 15 m Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) fitness test, and following the test, the children scoring beyond the upper limit of the healthy fitness zone were interviewed with regard to their out-of-school participation in physical activity. The Russian students achieved significantly higher scores than American students (P < .001), and males scored higher than females for both countries (P < .001). After examining the profiles of the students 3 apparent themes begin to emerge: Russian students walk to and from school; the students in both settings who achieve a superior fitness level participate in after school physical activity; after school activities for the American students appear to be more recreational orientated than the Russian students, who participate in structured training in sports clubs. For the students in this study, it appears that participating in after school activity may have contributed to achieving high levels of aerobic fitness.

A High Level of Physical Fitness Is Associated With More Efficient Response Preparation in Older Adults

This study assessed the relationship between cardiovascular fitness and temporal preparation in elderly persons. 110 older adults (aged 60-69 or 70-79 years) were sorted into low- and high-fit groups based on aerobic fitness level estimated with a walking test. Response preparation processes were assessed with reaction time tasks in which short (1, 3, 5 s) and long (5, 7, 9 s) preparatory intervals varied randomly. The results suggest a better ability in high-fit individuals to maintain preparation over time (up to 9 s). Results of the present study suggest that in older adults, a high level of aerobic fitness is associated with more efficient response preparation processes.

Aerobic Conditioning for Team Sport Athletes

Team sport athletes require a high level of aerobic fitness in order to generate and maintain power output during repeated high-intensity efforts and to recover. Research to date suggests that these components can be increased by regularly performing aerobic conditioning. Traditional aerobic conditioning, with minimal changes of direction and no skill component, has been demonstrated to effectively increase aerobic function within a 4- to 10-week period in team sport players. More importantly, traditional aerobic conditioning methods have been shown to increase team sport performance substantially. Many team sports require the upkeep of both aerobic fitness and sport-specific skills during a lengthy competitive season. Classic team sport trainings have been shown to evoke marginal increases/decreases in aerobic fitness. In recent years, aerobic conditioning methods have been designed to allow adequate intensities to be achieved to induce improvements in aerobic fitness whilst incorporating movement-specific and skill-specific tasks, e.g. small-sided games and dribbling circuits. Such 'sport-specific' conditioning methods have been demonstrated to promote increases in aerobic fitness, though careful consideration of player skill levels, current fitness, player numbers, field dimensions, game rules and availability of player encouragement is required. Whilst different conditioning methods appear equivalent in their ability to improve fitness, whether sport-specific conditioning is superior to other methods at improving actual game performance statistics requires further research.

Aerobic fitness is associated with hippocampal volume in elderly humans

Deterioration of the hippocampus occurs in elderly individuals with and without dementia, yet individual variation exists in the degree and rate of hippocampal decay. Determining the factors that influence individual variation in the magnitude and rate of hippocampal decay may help promote lifestyle changes that prevent such deterioration from taking place. Aerobic fitness and exercise are effective at preventing cortical decay and cognitive impairment in older adults and epidemiological studies suggest that physical activity can reduce the risk for developing dementia. However, the relationship between aerobic fitness and hippocampal volume in elderly humans is unknown. In this study, we investigated whether individuals with higher levels of aerobic fitness displayed greater volume of the hippocampus and better spatial memory performance than individuals with lower fitness levels. Furthermore, in exploratory analyses, we assessed whether hippocampal volume mediated the relationship between fitness and spatial memory. Using a region-of-interest analysis on magnetic resonance images in 165 nondemented older adults, we found a triple association such that higher fitness levels were associated with larger left and right hippocampi after controlling for age, sex, and years of education, and larger hippocampi and higher fitness levels were correlated with better spatial memory performance. Furthermore, we demonstrated that hippocampal volume partially mediated the relationship between higher fitness levels and enhanced spatial memory. Our results clearly indicate that higher levels of aerobic fitness are associated with increased hippocampal volume in older humans, which translates to better memory function.

Exercise Fails to Improve Neurocognition in Depressed Middle-Aged and Older Adults

Although cross-sectional studies have demonstrated an association between higher levels of aerobic fitness and improved neurocognitive function, there have been relatively few interventional studies investigating this relationship, and results have been inconsistent. We assessed the effects of aerobic exercise on neurocognitive function in a randomized controlled trial of patients with major depressive disorder (MDD). Two-hundred and two sedentary men (n = 49) and women (n = 153), aged 40 yr and over and who met diagnostic criteria for MDD, were randomly assigned to the following: a) supervised exercise, b) home-based exercise, c) sertraline, or d) placebo pill. Before and after 4 months of treatment, participants completed measures of: Executive Function (Trail Making Test B-A difference score, Stroop Color-Word, Ruff 2 & 7 Test, Digit Symbol), Verbal Memory (Logical Memory, Verbal Paired Associates), and Verbal Fluency/Working Memory (Animal Naming, Controlled Oral Word Association Test, Digit Span). Multivariate analyses of covariance were performed to test the effects of treatment on posttreatment neuropsychological test scores, with baseline neuropsychological test scores, age, education, and change in depression scores entered as covariates. The performance of exercise participants was no better than participants receiving placebo across all neuropsychological tests. Exercise participants performed better than participants receiving sertraline on tests of executive function but not on tests of verbal memory or verbal fluency/working memory. We found little evidence to support the benefits of an aerobic exercise intervention on neurocognitive performance in patients with MDD.

‘overshoot’ during moderate-intensity exercise in endurance-trained athletes: The influence of exercise modality

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of exercise modality on the 'overshoot' in V(O2) that has been reported following the onset of moderate-intensity (below the gas exchange threshold, GET) exercise in endurance athletes. Seven trained endurance cyclists and seven trained endurance runners completed six square-wave transitions to a work-rate or running speed requiring 80% of mode-specific GET during both cycle and treadmill running exercise. The kinetics of V(O2) was assessed using non-linear regression and any overshoot in V(O2) was quantified as the integrated volume (IV) of O(2) consumed above the steady-state requirement. During cycling, an overshoot in V(O2) was evident in all seven cyclists (IV = 136 +/- 41 ml) and in four runners (IV = 81 +/- 94 ml). During running, an overshoot in V(O2) was evident in four runners (IV = 72 +/- 61 ml) but no cyclists. These data challenge the notion that V(O2) always rises towards a steady-state with near-exponential kinetics in this exercise intensity domain. The greater incidence of the V(O2) overshoot during cycling (11/14 subjects) compared to running (4/14 subjects) indicates that the overshoot phenomenon is related to an interaction between high levels of aerobic fitness and exercise modality. We speculate that a transient loss in muscle efficiency as a consequence of a non-constant ATP requirement following the onset of constant-work-rate exercise or an initially excessive recruitment of motor units (relative to the work-rate) might contribute to the overshoot phenomenon.

Role of Aerobic Fitness and Aging on Cerebral White Matter Integrity

Neuroimaging research suggests that cerebral white matter (WM) integrity, as reflected in fractional anisotropy (FA) via diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), is decreased in older adults, especially in the prefrontal regions of the brain. Behavioral investigations of cognitive functioning suggest that some aspects of cognition may be better preserved in older adults who possess higher levels of aerobic fitness. There are only a few studies, however, investigating potential mechanisms for the improvements in aerobic fitness. Our study suggests that greater aerobic fitness may be related to greater WM integrity in select brain regions.

Heart rate and blood lactate responses during Taekwondo training and competition

Objective The study investigated physical fitness characteristics of elite Taekwondo (TKD) players as well as their heart rate (HR) response and blood lactate concentration changes during TKD specific exercises and simulated competition. Methods Anaerobic and aerobic power has been evaluated in eight elite TKD players (age: 20 ± 1 years, body mass: 70.8 ± 6 kg, Ht: 179.9 ± 4 cm). We also measured heart rate and blood lactate concentration during competition and specific-exercises (front kicks during 10 s, 1 and 3 min). Results Maximum oxygen uptake (VO 2max) and peak anaerobic power (Wpeak) averaged 56.22 ± 2.57 ml min –1 kg –1 and 12.1 ± 1.7 W kg –1, respectively. HR and blood lactate [La] concentrations increased significantly during competition ( F = 19.4, P < 0.001; F = 21.3, P < 0.001) compared to the resting value. HR and [La] values were significantly correlated with those measured during 10 s ( R = 0.85, P < 0.05 and R = 0.79, P < 0.05, respectively) and 3-min specific exercises ( R = 0.95, P < 0.01 and R = 0.76, P < 0.05). Conclusions TKD requires high levels of both aerobic and anaerobic physical fitness. The correlation between specific exercises and competition is of practical interest for TKD players and trainers.

Does aerobic fitness influence microvascular function in healthy adults at risk of developing Type 2 diabetes?

To investigate whether aerobic fitness is associated with skin microvascular function in healthy adults with an increased risk of developing Type 2 diabetes. Twenty-seven healthy normal glucose-tolerant humans with either a previous diagnosis of gestational diabetes or having two parents with Type 2 diabetes and 27 healthy adults who had no history of diabetes were recruited. Maximal oxygen uptake was assessed using an incremental exercise test to exhaustion. Skin microvascular function was assessed using laser Doppler techniques as the maximum skin hyperaemic response to a thermal stimulus (maximum hyperaemia) and the forearm skin blood flow response to the iontophoretic application of acetylcholine (ACh) and sodium nitroprusside. Maximal oxygen uptake was not significantly different in the 'at-risk' group compared with healthy controls. Maximum hyperaemia was reduced in those 'at risk' (1.29 +/- 0.30 vs. 1.46 +/- 0.33 V, P = 0.047); however, the peak response to acetylcholine or sodium nitroprusside did not differ in the two groups. A significant positive correlation was demonstrated between maximal oxygen uptake and maximum hyperaemia (r = 0.52, P = 0.006 l/min and r = 0.60, P = 0.001 ml/kg/min) and peak ACh response (r = 0.40, P = 0.04 l/min and r = 0.47, P = 0.013 ml/kg/min) in the 'at-risk' group when expressed in absolute (l/min) or body mass-related (ml/kg/min) terms. No significant correlations were found in the control group. In this 'at-risk' group with skin microvascular dysfunction maximal oxygen uptake was not reduced compared with healthy controls. However, in the 'at-risk' group alone, individuals with higher levels of aerobic fitness also had better microvascular and endothelial responsiveness.

Physiological Aspects of Surfboard Riding Performance

Surfboard riding (surfing) has experienced a 'boom' in participants and media attention over the last decade at both the recreational and the competitive level. However, despite its increasing global audience, little is known about physiological and other factors related to surfing performance. Time-motion analyses have demonstrated that surfing is an intermittent sport, with arm paddling and remaining stationary representing approximately 50% and 40% of the total time, respectively. Wave riding only accounts for 4-5% of the total time when surfing. It has been suggested that these percentages are influenced mainly by environmental factors. Competitive surfers display specific size attributes. Particularly, a mesomorphic somatotype and lower height and body mass compared with other matched-level aquatic athletes. Data available suggest that surfers possess a high level of aerobic fitness. Upper-body ergometry reveals that peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) values obtained in surfers are consistently higher than values reported for untrained subjects and comparable with those reported for other upper-body endurance-based athletes. Heart rate (HR) measurements during surfing practice have shown an average intensity between 75% and 85% of the mean HR values measured during a laboratory incremental arm paddling VO2peak test. Moreover, HR values, together with time-motion analysis, suggest that bouts of high-intensity exercise demanding both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism are intercalated with periods of moderate- and low-intensity activity soliciting aerobic metabolism. Minor injuries such as lacerations are the most common injuries in surfing. Overuse injuries in the shoulder, lower back and neck area are becoming more common and have been suggested to be associated with the repetitive arm stroke action during board paddling. Further research is needed in all areas of surfing performance in order to gain an understanding of the sport and eventually to bring surfing to the next level of performance.

Physiological Profiles of Elite Wheelchair Basketball Players in Preparation for the 2000 Paralympic Games

The purpose of this study was to examine the physiological changes in elite wheelchair basketball players leading up to the 2000 Paralympics. Twelve male players attended regular physiological assessments on six occasions; averaged data of two sessions for each year were used. Physiological measures included body mass, skinfold measurements, peak oxygen uptake and peak power obtained during maximal sprinting. VO2peak significantly increased from 2.65 to 2.83 L·min-1 prior to the Paralympics. Training had little influence on the anthropometric measurements or maximal sprinting data. In conclusion, the GB wheelchair basketball players appeared to have high levels of aerobic and anaerobic fitness. The longitudinal physiological profiles leading to the 2000 Paralympics suggest that players improved their aerobic base while maintaining other fitness prerequisites.

Effect of a Collegiate Basketball Season on Anthropometric and Physiological Variables

1439 Collegiate basketball players require a high level of aerobic fitness and optimal body composition profiles in order to maximize performance. While off-season training is emphasized, little is known about how a player's fitness may change during a competitive season. Information on individual player fitness changes is helpful to the coaching staff and athletic trainers responsible for health and well-being of the team throughout the year. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of a men's collegiate basketball season on selected anthropometric and physiological player indices. METHODS: Participants were collegiate-level male basketball players competing at an NCAA Division I institution from 1997–2003 (age = 19.6 ± 1.3 yrs, Ht = 195.0 ± 8.0 cm). All participants completed pre- and post-season testing. Testing consisted of anthropometry (ht and wt), body composition (% fat via hydrodensitometry), and aerobic fitness (VO2max testing using a motorized treadmill). Respiratory gases were collected continuously and finger stick blood lactates were obtained between discontinuous treadmill stages. Individual characteristics were investigated and statistical analysis (ANOVA; alpha = P<0.05) was performed on VO2max, lactate at 3rd stage of treadmill test, % fat, and body weight. RESULTS: Descriptive statistics of measured variables are shown in the table below.Table: No Caption available.While there were individual differences in measured variables from pre- to postseason, mean changes were not significant. There was a trend (P season, <0.078) for VO2max to be higher in perimeter (56 ± 3 ml/kg•min−1) vs. post (53 ± 3 ml/kg•min−1) players, but this difference was not significant. CONCLUSION: On average, measured anthropometric and physiologic variables did not change significantly from pre- to post-season. However, on an individual basis, some players showed significant changes in body weight, fatness, and aerobic fitness.

Evolution and our environment: will we adapt?

Evolution and our environment: will we adapt?

Evaluation of the influence of cardiorespiratory fitness on diverse health risk factors, independent of waist circumference, in 40-year-old Flemish males.

To examine whether cardiorespiratory fitness is associated with health risk factors, independent of abdominal obesity (waist circumference). Data from 141 40-year-old Flemish male subjects were used in a cross-sectional design. The main outcome measure in this study was the health risk profile, composed of lipid parameters, blood pressure, and body composition parameters. Data were analyzed by regression analysis and by means of analysis of covariance with waist circumference (WC) as covariate and cardiorespiratory fitness as source of variance. The data demonstrated that cardiorespiratory fitness was significantly associated with triglycerides, with the ratio of total cholesterol/serum high density lipoprotein cholesterol, and with percent body fat, independent of an association with WC. Major findings of the present cross-sectional study indicate that a high WC is associated with adverse health-related lipid profile and body composition characteristics and that relatively high levels of aerobic fitness attenuate the health risk associated with a large WC.

Blood pressure reactivity to mental stress and aerobic fitness in normotensive young adult African–American males with parental history of hypertension

Hypertension (HT) is the leading health problem in the adult African–American (AA) community and is associated with risk factors of stress, physical inactivity, and family history. We examined the influences of aerobic fitness and parental history of HT on blood pressure (BP) reactivity to mental stress in 60 normotensive young adult AA males. A 5-min mental arithmetic test was used as a provocative stress. Measurements of peak oxygen uptake (V̇O2peak) were used to classify physically active and inactive subjects into groups of high and low aerobic fitness. A questionnaire was used to evaluate parental BP histories. Reactivity of BP was indexed by differences in values (delta) measured during baseline and stress testing periods. Subjects with a parental history of HT (PH+) had significantly higher baseline systolic BP and mean arterial BP (SBP, MABP) values than subjects with no parental history of HT (PH−). Among the group of PH+ subjects, BP reactivity to mental stress was as follows: the high aerobic fitness subgroup (V̇O2peak=54.6±1.2 ml/kg/min) (n=15) exhibited a 7.3±2.0 mmHg rise in SBP and a 3.2±2.0 mmHg rise in MABP, and the low aerobic fitness subgroup (V̇O2peak=37.1±0.7 ml/kg/min) (n=15) had a 15.8±2.0 mmHg rise in SBP and an 11.8±2.0 mmHg rise in MABP (p<0.05). Among the group of PH− subjects with high and low aerobic fitness (n=30, 15/group), no differences in BP reactivity to mental stress were found. These results suggest that a lifestyle of physical activity associated with a high level of aerobic fitness may attenuate BP reactivity to mental stress and reduce the risk of HT in AA men. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

ASSUMPTION OF LINEARITY IN BORG SCALE RPE RESPONSES ACROSS FITNESS LEVELS AND GENDER

183 The purpose of this investigation was to determine the linearity in ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) obtained from the 15-category Borg Scale for males and females with different levels of aerobic fitness. Thirty-three males(17-32 yrs) and twenty-five females, (17-24 yrs) performed three exercise trials on a Monarck cycle ergometer. During the first trial, the RPE scale was anchored. The next two trials presented identical progressively incremented tests. Peak VO2 (VO2peak) was determined during the test stage at which the subject terminated exercise i.e. peak intensity. Power output was increased by 150 kg•m•min-1 at the beginning of each exercise stage. Pedal rate was set at 50 rev•min-1. Heart rate(b•min-1), VO2 (1•min-1), and RPE for the overall body (RPE-O) were measured each minute. The male and female cohorts were divided into low, moderate and high aerobic fitness levels based on VO2peak (1•min-1). The average RPE-O for each stage was plotted as a function of power output using a regression model. The results were: TableTableAll regression correlations were significant (p<0.01). No regression line in either test one or test two differed significantly from a linear regression model. The absolute value of the residuals from each fitness level in test one and again in test two were compared for both males and females. No two lines significantly differed in linearity from each other. Tukey Post-Hoc tests confirmed this finding. Various clinical, sport, and wellness applications of RPE-O assume that responses derived from the 15 category Borg scale are linear throughout the entire psychophysical stimulus-response range. The validity of this assumption has not been established when subject cohorts are differentiated by aerobic fitness level and gender. The present findings support the assumption of linearity in Borg scale perceived exertion responses for young adult males and females varying in maximal aerobic power.

The Relationship between Aerobic Fitness and Recovery from High-Intensity Exercise in Infantry Soldiers

The relationship between aerobic fitness and recovery from high-intensity exercise was examined in 197 infantry soldiers. Aerobic fitness was determined by a maximal-effort, 2,000-m run (RUN). High-intensity exercise consisted of three bouts of a continuous 140-m sprint with several changes of direction. A 2-minute passive rest separated each sprint. A fatigue index was developed by dividing the mean time of the three sprints by the fastest time. Times for the RUN were converted into standardized T scores and separated into five groups (group 1 had the slowest run time and group 5 had the fastest run time). Significant differences in the fatigue index were seen between group 1 (4.9 +/- 2.4%) and groups 3 (2.6 +/- 1.7%), 4 (2.3 +/- 1.6%), and 5 (2.3 +/- 1.3%). It appears that recovery from high-intensity exercise is improved at higher levels of aerobic fitness (faster time for the RUN). However, as the level of aerobic fitness improves above the population mean, no further benefit in the recovery rate from high-intensity exercise is apparent.

Positive Effects of Exercise and Physical Activity on Serum Lipids in Children

Abstract Coronary heart disease (CHD) is the No. 1 killer of adults in North America, and one of the principal causes is hypercholesterolemia, or elevated levels of serum cholesterol. While there are a number of non-modifiable risk factors which affect a person's cholesterol levels, several modifiable risk factors also have been identified. Physical inactivity, a modifiable risk factor, is now considered to be a primary risk factor for CHD. Research indicates that regular physical activity and subsequent high levels of aerobic fitness are valuable in the prevention and treatment of hypercholesterolemia in adults. Atherosclerosis, a consequence of high cholesterol levels, has been found to begin in infancy. Fatty streaks have been identified in the aortas of children three years of age, and have also been observed in the coronary arteries of 10-year-olds. Because atherosclerosis can begin in childhood, the early years of life are a good time to begin healthy lifestyle activities, including regular physical activity. Research clearly suggests that regular physical activity and exercise can have a positive effect on serum lipid levels in children. It is essential that regular physical activity and exercise be promoted in children to reduce the risks associated with elevated levels of cholesterol which in time lead to CHD.

Free fatty acid metabolism in aerobically fit individuals

The impact of aerobic fitness level on the production and disposal of serum free fatty acids was investigated in 26 normal young volunteers. The fitness level was ascertained by history and confirmed by determination of maximal aerobic capacity. Energy expenditure and substrate oxidation at rest were measured with indirect calorimetry. Free fatty acid turnover was measured with an infusion of [14C]palmitic acid. All tests were done > or = 48 h after the last bout of exercise. The sedentary (SED) volunteers had higher rates of systemic delivery of fatty acids than aerobically fit (FIT) individuals (532 +/- 53.4 vs. 353 +/- 62.3 mumol/min; P = 0.05). This difference was accentuated when the values were normalized to fat-free mass (9.2 +/- 0.8 and 5.9 +/- 0.98 mumol.kg-1.min-1 for SED and FIT, respectively). Fatty acid oxidation was similar between FIT and SED volunteers in absolute numbers (209 +/- 25 vs. 202 +/- 21 mumol/min, respectively; NS) as well as when normalized to fat-free mass (3.8 +/- 0.9 vs. 3.6 +/- 1.4 mumol.kg-1.min-1, respectively; NS). In contrast, the nonoxidative disposal of serum fatty acids was higher in SED (330 +/- 46.1 mumol/min) than in FIT individuals (144 +/- 52 mumol/min; P = 0.026). Thus, the ratio of nonoxidative to oxidative disposal rates of fatty acids was higher in SED than in FIT individuals (1.65 +/- 0.29 vs. 0.75 +/- 0.17; P = 0.021). The data support the hypothesis that high aerobic fitness level is associated with a low rate of systemic delivery of fatty acids at rest. Nevertheless, subjects with high aerobic fitness levels have fat oxidation at the same rate as unfit individuals.

Physical conditioning status and diet intake in active and sedentary older men

Changes in body composition accompanied by a reduction of food intake have been reported to occur with aging, but these changes may not be an inevitable consequence of aging, if one continues a vigorous exercise program in later life. The diets and body composition of 16 endurance-trained older athletes were compared to those of 24 healthy age and BMI-matched sedentary men. Aerobic capacity was greater in athletes (p<0.0001). Percent body fat and waist/hip ratio were lower in athletes than in controls (p<0.05). Protein and Kcal intake per kg body weight were greater in athletes (p<0.05). The composition of the diets was different also, with athletes consuming a greater percentage of their calories as carbohydrate and less as alcohol and fat (p<0.05). Percent body fat was inversely related to kcal/kg intake in athletes (r=-0.58, p<0.02), but not controls (r=-0.35, p=0.18) and to VO 2 max in controls (r=-0.45, p<0.05) but not athletes (r=-0.17, p=0.53). These results show that older endurance-trained male athletes can maintain high levels of aerobic fitness and desirable weight and body composition despite calorie intakes comparable to levels of much younger men.