High Levels Of Endemism Research Articles

Endemism Patterns of Planthoppers (Fulgoroidea) in China

Studies on endemism are always of high interest in biogeography and contribute to better understanding of the evolution of species and making conservation plans. The present study aimed to investigate the endemism patterns of planthoppers in China by delimiting centers of endemism and areas of endemism. We collected 6,907 spatial distribution records for 860 endemic planthopper species from various resources. Centers of endemism were identified using weighted endemism values at 1° grid size. Parsimony analysis of endemicity and endemicity analysis were employed to detect areas of endemism at 1°, 1.5°, and 2° grid sizes. Six centers of endemism located in mountainous areas were identified: Taiwan Island, Hainan Island, eastern Yungui Plateau, Wuyi Mountains, western Qinling Mountains, and western Yunnan. We also delimited six areas of endemism, which were generally consistent with centers of endemism. Our findings demonstrated that mountainous areas have an essential role in facilitating the high level of endemism and formation of areas of endemism in planthoppers through the combined effects of complex topography, a long-term stable environment, and geological events. Dispersal ability and distribution of host plants also have important effects on the patterns of planthoppers’ endemism.

Local taxonomic spectra in plants, animals, fungi and terrestrial protists show common mathematical patterns

Taxonomic spectra, i.e. relations between supraspecific taxa by the number of included species, remain poorly understood in aspect of the mathematical properties. We studied taxonomic spectra of plants (Magnoliophyta, Bryophyta), animals (Coleoptera, Aves), fungi (Agaricomycetes) and terrestrial protists (Myxomycetes), found in the Homilsha Forests National Nature Park (North-East of Ukraine), and concluded that they correspond to the hollow-curve distribution at the level of genera, families and orders. The spectra of most taxa, as shown by the Akaike information criterion, are closely approximated by the log-series distribution model at all taxonomic levels. This type of distribution is typical for the species abundance curves, based on collections made from small areas. At the same time, in the genera–families–orders row the similarity to the lognormal distribution increases. The central values and variability vary considerably between different taxonomic groups and ranks, however, without affecting the type of distribution. The number of orders in all taxa except Bryophyta has reached the saturation and coincides with the curve of the estimated number of orders according to the Chao1 coefficient. For families and especially genera the correspondence with estimated number of species is much lower. Our results do not confirm the assumption that hollow-curve distributions of taxonomic spectra result from the artificial fragmentation of taxa. These distributions neither depend on the insufficient knowledge about the species composition at the locality, nor reflect the size of the studied area. The presence of such distributions in both local and global biota of different groups may be explained by the common features of their evolution, especially by the existence of relict orphan groups. The fact that in Homilsha Forests the kurtosis and skewness of distributions decreases in the genera–families–orders row can therefore be explained by the relatively low percentage of the high-rank orphan taxa in the local biota. This may be a common feature of communities studied at small geographical scale, since orphan taxa often demonstrate a high level of endemism. Comparative studies of local communities from different climate zones may help to understand how universal are the patterns, described herein.

Phenetic and Genetic Variability of Continental and Island Populations of the Freshwater Copepod Mastigodiaptomus ha Cervantes, 2020 (Copepoda): A Case of Dispersal?

The diversity of freshwater zooplankton is still little known in Mexico, particularly in reference to insular zooplankton communities. Diaptomid copepods (Crustacea: Copepoda: Calanoida) are a widespread group worldwide, and Mexico harbours high diaptomid diversity. Based on a recent sampling of freshwater zooplankton on a Caribbean Island of Mexico, we present the first record of a diaptomid copepod from an island freshwater ecosystem. It shows the well-known tendency of Neotropical diaptomids to have restricted distributional patterns and high levels of endemism. The species recorded, Mastigodiaptomus ha (Cervantes-Martínez, 2020) appears to have a restricted distribution in the Yucatan Peninsula (YP), and the island as well. In order to explore potential differences between the island and continental populations of this species, its phenetic and genetic diversity was analysed by performing morphological comparisons and also by exploring differences of the habitat conditions and genetic sequences (CO1 gene). Our analysis revealed a low (average = 0.33%) genetic divergence between both populations; likewise, both the morphology and habitat conditions closely resemble each other in these two populations. The low genetic divergence between the continental and island populations of M. ha suggests an early common origin of the species in the geological history of the YP.

Natural history of Hylodes perere Silva & Benmaman, 2008 (Anura, Hylodidae) in the Serra Negra da Mantiqueira, Atlantic Forest of Brazil: microhabitat, sexual dimorphism, diet and distribution

ABSTRACT The Atlantic Forest (AF) is an ecoregion considered of extreme importance for global biodiversity, partly due to its high number of endemic species. The large amount of altitudinal variation, mountainous complexes and climatic factors associated with naturally fragmented environments favour high levels of biodiversity and endemism for various groups, with an emphasis on frogs. However, several species remain without enough information available regarding their conservation status and natural history. Hylodes perere has diurnal and nocturnal habits, and is classified as ‘data deficient’ like many other endemic species of the AF. As such, in this study we aimed to: (i) describe the use of microhabitat by H. perere, (ii) verify the existence of sexual dimorphism based on morphometric measurements, and (iii) describe which food items are present in the species’ diet. We also provide comments on the species’ distribution. Our data show that males and females have the same most used microhabitat (humid soil) and different in the use of the second most used microhabitats, with males being found mostly above stone surfaces and females using rocky crevices. Females were larger than males in body length (SVL), but males have thicker arms and forearm. The diet of males and females is similar for H. perere, composed of insects, arachnids and crustaceans, suggesting a similar foraging strategy for both sexes. Currently, H. perere, is distributed only in Serra Negra da Mantiqueira and Serra da Bandeira, in the Mantiqueira Complex, an area approximately 33 km long. Apparently, it has a relatively stable population in the Serra Negra da Mantiqueira, but it needs attention due to increasing habitat loss and fragmentation in the AF. Our study provides new data on natural history for the species, which may help in the development of future conservation and management strategies in situ.

Mitochondrial introgression by ancient admixture between two distant lacustrine fishes in Sulawesi Island.

Sulawesi, an island located in a biogeographical transition zone between Indomalaya and Australasia, is famous for its high levels of endemism. Ricefishes (family Adrianichthyidae) are an example of taxa that have uniquely diversified on this island. It was demonstrated that habitat fragmentation due to the Pliocene juxtaposition among tectonic subdivisions of this island was the primary factor that promoted their divergence; however, it is also equally probable that habitat fusions and resultant admixtures between phylogenetically distant species may have frequently occurred. Previous studies revealed that some individuals of Oryzias sarasinorum endemic to a tectonic lake in central Sulawesi have mitochondrial haplotypes that are similar to the haplotypes of O. eversi, which is a phylogenetically related but geologically distant (ca. 190 km apart) adrianichthyid endemic to a small fountain. In this study, we tested if this reflects ancient admixture of O. eversi and O. sarasinorum. Population genomic analyses of genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphisms revealed that O. eversi and O. sarasinorum are substantially reproductively isolated from each other. Comparison of demographic models revealed that the models assuming ancient admixture from O. eversi to O. sarasinorum was more supported than the models assuming no admixture; this supported the idea that the O. eversi-like mitochondrial haplotype in O. sarasinorum was introgressed from O. eversi. This study is the first to demonstrate ancient admixture of lacustrine or pond organisms in Sulawesi beyond 100 km. The complex geological history of this island enabled such island-wide admixture of lacustrine organisms, which usually experience limited migration.

Two new, remarkably colored species of the Neotropical catfish genus Cetopsorhamdia Eigenmann & Fisher, 1916 (Siluriformes, Heptapteridae) from Chapada dos Parecis, western Brazil, with an assessment of the morphological characters bearing on their phylogenetic relationships

Two new species of heptapterid catfish genus Cetopsorhamdia are described from close localities in western Brazil, at Chapada dos Parecis, an area with extremely high level of endemism. One species is from the upper Rio Madeira system, Rondônia State, and the other from the upper Rio Tapajós system, Mato Grosso State. The two species are diagnosed, among several other features, by their markedly distinctive color patterns, with the former having well-defined quadrangular marks in trunk flanks while the latter bearing irregular, vertical bars along the trunk. The monophyly of Cetopsorhamdia is discussed, with two putative synapomorphies being proposed to support the genus. Potentially informative morphological characters to resolve the internal relationships of the genus are presented and discussed. Despite the striking external differences between the two species herein described, they are found to likely form a clade.

SPECIES DIVERSITY OF MAMMALS AND BIRDS USING CAMERA-TRAPS IN A CLOUD FOREST IN A MEXICAN HOTSPOT

The cloud forests comprise high levels of species richness and endemism, and are the most threatened habitat in Mexico. They are listed as priority regions for conservation nationwide. Here, we estimated species richness and relative abundance of birds and mammals using camera-traps in a cloud forest located in a biodiversity hotspot of Mexico. From December 2013 to December 2014, we sampled 538 independent records from 27 species, including 11 species listed with some level of threat. Expected species richness, using first-order Jackknife estimator, was 37.08 species DE ± 2.86. We reported the greatest number of birds and mammals observed in cloud forests using camera-traps, and a high relative abundance index for some species. We found a significant difference between species composition observed in our study and other studies using camera-traps in Mexico. We observed a similar species composition in a nearby tropical rainforest habitat, suggesting that the recorded species are not restricted to cloud forests and move between different habitats. This highlights the importance of this region as a connector with “Los Chimalapas,” the largest and northernmost rain forest patch in Mexico.

Hubungan Jenis Plasmodium falciparum dan Plasmodium vivax dengan Kejadian Anemia pada Pasien Malaria di RSUD Ratu Aji Putri Botung Penajam Paser Utara

Malaria is a disease caused by Plasmodium infection that is still a health problem in the tropical area including Indonesia. Penajam Paser Utara is the only district with a high level of malaria endemicity outside eastern of Indonesia which is located at the Province of East Kalimantan. Malaria can cause various complications including haematological abnormalities. Haematological abnormalities that are often found in both falciparum malaria and vivax malaria is anaemia. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between the types of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax with the incidence of anaemia in malaria patients at Ratu Aji Putri Botung, Penajam Paser Utara hospital. This research is an observational analytic study with cross sectional method. The data was obtained from medical records of hospitalized malaria patients at Ratu Aji Putri Botung Penajam Paser Utara hospital in the period of January 2013 – August 2018 by purposive sampling method. The data were analyzed using the Chi-square test. The subjects of the study were 310 malaria patients consisting of 60,3% (n=187) patients infected with Plasmodium falciparum and 39,7% (n=123) patients infected with Plasmodium vivax. The majority of research subjects were male (95,8%) and were in the 26 – 40 years age group (56,5%). Anaemia was found in 49% of malaria patients dominated by vivax malaria patients (52%). Statistical test result between types of Plasmodium with the incidence of anaemia was p = 0,391. It was concluded that there was no association between the types of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax with the incidence of anaemia in malaria patients.

Conservation ecology of birds in Mt. Hilong-hilong, a Key Biodiversity Area on Mindanao Island, the Philippines

The identification of key areas for conservation and protection according to science-based evidence is an important component to circumvent the negative impacts of environmental changes within geopolitical territories and across the globe. Priority areas for biodiversity played an important role to ensure the protection of many species particularly those that are unique and threatened. There are more than 200 Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) in the Philippines, yet many important research and biodiversity data are either unpublished or unconsolidated. Birds are commonly studied indicators for KBA identification due to their high species richness, diversity, and sensitivity to forest ecosystems. By combining data from past and present surveys, we accounted for a total of 148 bird species of 51 families, with 20 new records from recent field surveys. Our analysis showed a high level of endemism within Mt. Hilong-hilong with 36% Philippine endemic, 14% restricted to Mindanao faunal region and 11% migrant. In terms of conservation, 8% of the species were considered in threatened categories. The species richness and endemism were higher in lowland to mid-elevation areas compared to higher elevation areas of the KBA. Endemism (i.e., Mindanao endemic) and increasing body mass were important determinants of binary extinction risk for bird species in Mt. Hilong-hilong. The high biodiversity in Mt. Hilong-hilong indicates an example of the vital role of KBAs in preserving nationally and globally important bird species. Lastly, we emphasise the importance of collaboration and integrating past and present information to synthesise relevant information to complement ongoing conservation efforts in Mt. Hilong-hilong and other key habitats in the Philippines.

Integrative taxonomy supports high species diversity of south-eastern Brazilian mountain catfishes of the T. reinhardti group (Siluriformes: Trichomycteridae)

The mountain area between the Mantiqueira and Espinhaço ranges of south-eastern Brazil is of special interest for biologists by sheltering headwaters of two of the largest South American river basins, as well as comprising sections of two main world biodiversity hotspots. Mineral exploitation activities have caused great environmental impact, but biological inventories have demonstrated a rich biota with some organisms still poorly known. We herein analyse catfishes of the Trichomycterus reinhardti species group, endemic to this area. With the objective of inferring species limits, we combine morphological variation to unilocus coalescent methods of species delimitation using fragments of the mitochondrial genome (total of 1924 bp) for 38 individuals collected in 14 sites. The phylogenetic analysis supported a clade endemic to the Rio São Francisco basin and neighbouring Rio Doce headwaters, Espinhaço mountain range, and another one, endemic to the Rio Grande drainage, Rio Paraná basin, between Mantiqueira and Canastra mountain ranges. This biogeographic pattern may be explained by geological evidence indicating that the upper Rio Grande drainage was connected to the upper Rio São Francisco basin until the Middle Miocene, instead of being part of the Rio Paraná basin as today. The integrative analysis supported a total of 10 species, six of which are new and here described. Interestingly, the small areas inhabited by species here delimited are highly coincident with the distribution range of other mountain fish species. High level of local species endemism is possibly related to the uncommon regional relief, with small subdrainages crossed by transversal hills as a result of geological gaps, supporting a complex palaeogeographic scenario favouring isolation of taxa in small areas. Under a conservation perspective, these small areas of endemism for mountain fishes deserve special attention due to the process of environmental decline along centuries in the region. http://www.zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:0E3981E9-D7A9-4C9B-B56A-85621F33A7CB

A dated phylogeny of Argophyllaceae (Asterales) is consistent with spread by long-distance dispersal

ABSTRACT Argophyllaceae is a small eudicot family of trees and shrubs of south-western Pacific distribution, comprising two genera: Corokia and Argophyllum. The phylogeny of Corokia, which contains six species, has attracted little attention so far, the genus being usually represented by a single species in studies looking at relationships at higher taxonomic levels. Here we bridge this knowledge gap with a complete phylogeny of the genus based on whole-plastid DNA sequences. We also investigated nuclear ribosomal DNA markers, which yielded a poorly supported phylogeny. Comparing fossil-calibrated and biogeographic dating approaches, we conclude that extant Argophyllaceae species are probably not Gondwanan relicts, the timing of their divergences being better explained by long-distance dispersal after the break-up of Gondwana than by vicariance. The high level of endemicity of the species of Corokia prevents the reconstruction of a precise biogeographic history of the genus, but our phylogenies suggest that the genus originated in Australia, then about 3.5 My ago started dispersing eastwards into the Pacific towards its present-day distribution.

Effects of mammal exclusion on invertebrate communities in New Zealand

AbstractIn the absence of mammals, the fauna of islands is characterised by high endemism levels and a tendency towards gigantism, flightlessness and longevity. These characteristics have resulted in a high vulnerability to introduced animals, either directly via predation or indirectly through an alteration of food web interactions. Because invertebrates are important components of food webs and essential for many ecosystem processes, we investigated how different mammal and bird communities, present inside and outside a fenced reserve, influenced ground‐dwelling invertebrates on the mainland of New Zealand. Some significant differences in invertebrate community composition were apparent inside versus outside the fenced reserve, predominantly Ctenognathus adamsi (Carabidae) being twenty times more abundant inside the reserve, and rove beetles (Staphylinidae) being eight times more abundant outside the reserve. The introduced blackbird (Turdus merula) was observed more regularly than other predators of invertebrates outside the reserve, while native robins (Petroica longipes) were more highly detected inside the reserve. Despite differences in the vertebrate insectivore community outside the reserve (multiple mammals and introduced birds) compared to inside (mainly native birds), the resulting similarity in net predation pressure may explain the apparent similarity in abundance for most of the other 24 invertebrate taxa examined. Removal of most mammals from within fenced reserves in New Zealand may enable introduced and native birds to flourish, with flow‐on effects on the invertebrate community. We conclude that further study of trophic interactions and additional intervention, may need to be considered if invertebrate conservation is a desired outcome from fenced reserves.

Molecular phylogenetics, PCA, and MFA recover a new species of Cyrtodactylus (Squamata: Gekkonidae) from an isolated sandstone massif in northwestern Cambodia.

The integrated results of maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI) analyses, principal component analyses (PCA), and a multiple factor analysis (MFA) recover a new, widely allopatric species of the Cyrtodactylus intermedius species group. Cyrtodactylus kulenensis sp. nov is endemic to the Phnom Kulen sandstone massif of the Phnom Kulen National Park, Siem Reap Province, in the lowlands of northwestern Cambodia. A phylogenetic analysis from a short read (275 base pairs) of the mitochondrial gene NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 (ND2) from C. kulenensis sp. nov. was aligned with 1449 base pairs from all other species in the intermedius group. The analysis recovered C. kulenensis sp. nov. as the sister species to a lineage composed of populations from the widely separated hilly regions of Sa Keao and Sakaerat in eastern Thailand. Multivariate (PCA, DAPC, and MFA) and univariate analyses (ANOVA) using combinations of meristic (scale counts), mensural (morphometric), and categorical (color pattern and morphology) characters from 52 specimens encompassing all species of the intermedius group clearly demonstrate C. kulenensis sp. nov. is significantly different and discretely diagnosable from all other species in the intermedius group. This new discovery further highlights the herpetological diversity and high levels of range-restricted endemism in basin-habitat-island landscapes throughout Indochina and the continued need for field work in the landscapes that remain unsurveyed.

Inter-island differentiation and contrasting patterns of diversity in the iconic Canary Island sub-alpine endemic Echium wildpretii (Boraginaceae)

The sub-alpine zones of oceanic islands are unique and dynamic ecosystems with high levels of endemism, making them particularly suitable model systems in which to investigate evolutionary and biogeographic processes. The sub-alpine flora of the Canary Islands is restricted to the islands of Tenerife and La Palma. Its origins are poorly understood. Echium wildpretii Hook.f. is an iconic species of the subalpine zones of these two islands, with distinct subspecies recognized on each island. This study examines patterns of genetic and morphological diversity in E. wildpretii to investigate the diversity and evolution of the lineage. Nine microsatellite markers were designed and used to investigate population genetic structure and patterns of gene flow within and between islands and populations. Morphological characters were assessed to test the distinctiveness of the two subspecies recognized. Strong genetic differentiation was observed between islands with higher genetic diversity on the younger island of La Palma than on Tenerife. Very low levels of inter-island gene flow were observed indicating that these taxa are reproductively isolated and evolving independently. Morphological analysis confirmed the distinctiveness of plants from the two islands. Given their genetic and morphological distinctiveness the taxa on Tenerife and La Palma merit recognition as distinct species. Higher genetic diversity in the La Palma species is consistent with an origin of the lineage on this island via upslope colonization, followed by dispersal to Tenerife where the plants show lower genetic diversity.

12 Novel clonal groups of Leptospira infecting humans in multiple contrasting epidemiological contexts in Sri Lanka.

Leptospirosis is a ubiquitous zoonotic disease and a major clinical challenge owing to the multitude of clinical presentations and manifestations that are possibly attributable to the diversity of Leptospira, the understanding of which is key to study the epidemiology of this emerging global disease threat. Sri Lanka is a hotspot for leptospirosis with high levels of endemicity as well as annual epidemics. We carried out a prospective study of Leptospira diversity in Sri Lanka, covering the full range of climatic zones, geography, and clinical severity. Samples were collected for leptospiral culture from 1,192 patients from 15 of 25 districts in Sri Lanka over two and half years. Twenty-five isolates belonging to four pathogenic Leptospira species were identified: L. interrogans, L. borgpetersenii, L. weilii, and L. kirschneri. At least six serogroups were identified among the isolates: Autumnalis (6), Pyrogenes (4), Icterohaemorrhagiae (2), Celledoni (1), Grippotyphosa (2) and Bataviae (1). Seven isolates did not agglutinate using available antisera panels, suggesting new serogroups. Isolates were sequenced using an Illumina platform. These data add 25 new core genome sequence types and were clustered in 15 clonal groups, including 12 new clonal groups. L. borgpetersenii was found only in the dry zone and L. weilii only in the wet zone. Acute kidney injury and cardiovascular involvement were seen only with L. interrogans infections. Thrombocytopenia and liver impairment were seen in both L. interrogans and L. borgpetersenii infections. The inadequate sensitivity of culture isolation to identify infecting Leptospira species underscores the need for culture-independent typing methods for Leptospira.

The importance of environmental conditions in maintaining lineage identity in Epithelantha (Cactaceae).

The use of environmental variables to explain the evolution of lineages has gained relevance in recent studies. Additionally, it has allowed the recognition of species by adding more characters to morphological and molecular information. This study focuses on identifying environmental and landscape variables that have acted as barriers that could have influenced the evolution of Epithelantha species and its close genera.Our results show that soil pH, isothermality, temperature seasonality, and annual precipitation have a significant phylogenetic signal for Epithelantha. Soil type and landforms are also relevant as ecological barriers that maintain the identity of Epithelantha species.The variables associated with the soil (pH) have influenced the evolution of Epithelantha and probably in other genera of Cactaceae. Additionally, Epithelantha is frequent in the piedmont and haplic kastanozems. Bioclimatic variables reinforce the recognition of E. micromeris, and E. cryptica as independent species. Therefore, ecology can be considered as a factor to explain the high level of endemism in Cactaceae.

One northward, one southward: Contrasting biogeographical history in two benthic freshwater fish genera across Southeast Asia (Teleostei: Cobitoidea: Nemacheilus, Pangio)

Southeast Asia is one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots, and the high level of diversity and endemism was reached by colonisation events as well as internal diversification. We investigate the phylogenetic relationships and biogeographic history of the loach genus Nemacheilus, which is widely distributed and common across freshwaters of Southeast Asia. In addition we present the ancestral range reconstruction of the related loach genus Pangio that commonly occurs in the same region as Nemacheilus. Our results reveal that the species currently classified as Nemacheilus in fact are a polyphyletic assemblage; most species are now retaining in a monophyletic Nemacheilus sensu stricto and five species belong to different lineages. We further indicate the existence of hidden diversity within Nemacheilus in the form of several undescribed species. Three major clades (Selangoricus, Masyae and Ornatus) are found within the genus Nemacheilus sensu stricto. These clades generally correspond to the species groups formerly defined on the basis of their pigmentation pattern. The biogeographic analyses show that Nemacheilus most likely originated in mainland Southeast Asia and subsequently expanded in a southward direction to Borneo, Sumatra and Java and the southern Malay Peninsula. In contrast, the genus Pangio originated in Sundaland, from where it extended several times northwards into Indochina and to northern India. Our results demonstrate that small freshwater fishes with restricted dispersal ability are very helpful for the reconstruction of biogeographic history. The contrasting biogeographic history of these two groups of small, benthic and related fish show how complex and case-specific the processes that lead to the biodiversity richness of Southeast Asia are.

DNA barcoding in recognition of Gammarusflock diversity and distribution in the ancient Lake Ohrid

Lake Ohrid, located on the Balkan Peninsula at the Albanian-Macedonian border, is the oldest European lake (1.3-1.9 My old) and one of the world’s smallest ancient lakes. Taking into account the size of the lake and its biodiversity, it harbors the highest level of endemism, especially within amphipod crustaceans (ca. 90%) with the endemic Gammarus species flock. Our previous studies upon this flock have shown a substantial decoupling between molecular and morphological diversity, existence of cryptic species and puzzling speciation history. In order to explore sources of observed diversity, in the current study we are investigating ecological preferences of the species within the flock, based on their distribution in depth gradient, in relation to molecular diversity based on DNA barcoding. In the study over 200 barcodes were generated and combined with 173 previously published. The specimens were collected from all depth ranges of Lake Ohrid as well as from springs located on or near the banks of the lake. Within the species flock, 13 BIN’s were identified, 12 previously known and one newly recognized, representing separate lineage and putatively a new species. Two of the flock species were found only in the springs: G. sketi and G. cryptosalemaai. G. sketi, previously found only in springs on the southern banks of Lake Ohrid, has now also been discovered in springs in its north-eastern part. Both species show low haplotypic diversity. All remaining species were recorded from the depth between 20 and 60 meters, that is characterized by the highest ecological diversity with different types of substrates: stones, macrophytes, abundant Dreissena shells as well as sand and silt. Among them G. sywulai, G. macedonicus, G. cryptoparechiniformis, G. lychnidensis, G. ochridensis, G. parechinifromis were found exclusively within this depth range. The three latter species represent single BIN and share haplotypes, at the same time this BIN has the highest number of haplotypes in comparison to others. The remaining species found on this depth represent separate BINs with different levels of haplotype diversity. Only G. lychnidensis, G. stankokaramani and G. solidus were found below the depth of 60 meters, in a quite homogenous environment dominated by silt. In the deepest parts of the lake, between 260 and 290 meters, only G. solidus was found. This species is represented only by three haplotypes while G. stankokaramani is characterized by multiple haplotypes partially shared with G. lychnidensis. The shared haplotype represents the only G. lychnidensis occurrences on the depths below 60 meters. Summarizing, the highest abundance of BINs, species and haplotypes was recovered from the most ecologically diversified depth range of the lake (20 to 60 meters). This suggests that ecological heterogeneity could be the main driver of Gammarus species flock diversification in the ancient Lake Ohrid. Due to the complex pattern of morphological diversity, DNA barcoding proved to be the best if not the only method in identification of the species flock diversity.

Forest remnants in private lands are critical to the persistence of endangered birds in an Amazonian hotspot

Deforestation is considered the main human-induced and short-term threat to the persistence of forest species in the Amazon. Long-lasting and high-intensity deforestation, low coverage of protected areas, and high level of species endemism make the Belém Endemism Area (BEA) particularly more vulnerable than the rest of the Amazon area. However, this occurrence remains strongly neglected in global and regional conservation analyses. In this study, we used species distribution modeling and remote sensing data to map the richness pattern of endangered birds from the Amazon and assessed the species' conservation status based on landscape patterns of forest remnants. Our results revealed that the BEA's imperiled avifauna presents the most significant state of vulnerability to extinction compared with other areas of endemism in the Amazon. Almost 80 % of the total area of the BEA presents a strong anthropization of natural ecosystems. Of the 20 % of the area with high conservation value remnants, only 25 % is within protected areas, whereas the other 75 % is under private property domains. Moreover, forest remnants on private properties have a higher biodiversity conservation value as they are home to more threatened bird species than remnants within protected areas. Therefore, we argue that effective implementation of conservation of threatened bird species in the BEA depends directly on the maintenance of forest remnants on private properties from practical conservation actions.

Spatial Clustered Regression Analysis of 2017 Getis Score Indonesian Malaria Prevalence Data

Malaria is a disease that is still endemic to Indonesia. In the national scale, morbidity rate related to malaria continued to decline from 2009 to 2017. Eastern areas of Indonesia (namely Papua, West Papua, and East Nusa Tenggara) still have high endemic levels of malaria, while western areas (Islands Sumatera and Java) mostly have low endemic levels or even free of malaria. This indicates that malaria has a clustering pattern. This research used the Annual Parasite Incidence (API) data as the dependent variable and Slide Positivity Rate (SPR), Annual Blood Examination Rate (ABER), number of positive cases on children aged 1-14 years, and the number of Plasmodium falciparum cases and Plasmodium vivax cases data as the independent variables. Since they contain spatial autocorrelation, Getis Ord G_i were employed in the clustered regression analysis. Finite Mixture Model was employed as the clustering method. This study resulted in the forming of 3 clusters. Cities/regencies belonging to Cluster-1 were neither hotspots nor coldspots. Elements of Cluster-2 are SPR hotspots. Elements of Cluster-3 are hotspot areas of API, ABER, number of Plasmodium falciparum cases, number of Plasmodium vivax cases, and number of cases on children aged 1-14 years. Cluster-1 consists of 360 cities/regencies located in Islands Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Sumatera, and Java, and North Maluku Province. Cluster-2 consists of 88 cities/regencies, mostly located in provinces South Sumatera, Bengkulu, Lampung, Banten, DKI Jakarta, and West Java. Cluster-3 consists of 66 cities/regencies located in the Papua Island and East Nusa Tenggara Province.