High Rates Of Incarceration Research Articles

Incarceration and adult weight gain in the National Survey of American Life (NSAL)

BackgroundThe United States has the unenviable distinction of having both the highest obesity rate among Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) member countries and the highest incarceration rate in the world. Further, both are socially patterned by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic position. Incarceration involves various health behaviors that could influence adult weight trajectory. MethodsWe evaluated the associations between history and duration of adult incarceration and weight gain using the National Survey of American Life (N=6082 adults residing in the 48 contiguous states between February 2001 and March 2003). We propensity score-matched individuals to control for the probability of having a history of incarceration. To examine the relation between prior incarceration and adult weight gain, we fit gender-stratified generalized estimating equations controlling for propensity of incarceration history, age, education, income, race/ethnicity, and marital status. ResultsFor males (N=563), incarceration was associated with about a 1.77kg/m2 lower gain in body mass index (BMI) during adulthood, after adjusting for age, education, income, race/ethnicity, and marital status in addition to the propensity of having a history of incarceration (95% CI: −2.63, −0.92). For females (N=286), no significant overall relationship was found between a history of incarceration and adult weight gain. In subgroup analyses among those with an incarceration history, we found no overall association between duration of incarceration and adult weight gain in men or women. In sensitivity analyses, neither tobacco smoking nor parity changed the results. ConclusionsThe results of this study indicate that incarceration is associated with a lower transition of weight gain in males, but not in females..

A Latent Class Analysis of Risk Factors for Acquiring HIV Among Men Who Have Sex with Men: Implications for Implementing Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis Programs.

Current Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) guidelines for prescribing pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) to prevent HIV transmission are broad. In order to better characterize groups who may benefit most from PrEP, we reviewed demographics, behaviors, and clinical outcomes for individuals presenting to a publicly-funded sexually transmitted diseases (STD) clinic in Providence, Rhode Island, from 2012 to 2014. Latent class analysis (LCA) was used to identify subgroups of men who have sex with men (MSM) at highest risk for contracting HIV. A total of 1723 individuals presented for testing (75% male; 31% MSM). MSM were more likely to test HIV positive than heterosexual men or women. Among 538 MSM, we identified four latent classes. Class 1 had the highest rates of incarceration (33%), forced sex (24%), but had no HIV infections. Class 2 had <5 anal sex partners in the previous 12 months, the lowest rates of drug/alcohol use during sex and lower HIV prevalence (3%). Class 3 had the highest prevalence of HIV (7%) and other STDs (16%), > 10 anal sex partners in the previous 12 months (69%), anonymous partners (100%), drug/alcohol use during sex (76%), and prior STDs (40%). Class 4 had similar characteristics and HIV prevalence as Class 2. In this population, MSM who may benefit most from PrEP include those who have >10 sexual partners per year, anonymous partners, drug/alcohol use during sex and prior STDs. LCA is a useful tool for identifying clusters of characteristics that may place individuals at higher risk for HIV infection and who may benefit most from PrEP in clinical practice.

Personal Networks: A Hypothesized Mediator in the Association Between Incarceration and HIV Risk Behaviors Among Women With Histories of Homelessness

Objective: Research on women with histories of homelessness shows both higher rates of incarceration and higher rates of HIV-risk behaviors. However, understanding homeless women's experiences with the criminal justice system is hampered by the dearth of social network research with this population. To fill this gap and in an effort to enhance HIV-risk reduction among women with histories of homelessness, we examine whether incarceration history contributes to HIV-risk behaviors, and explore whether personal networks mediate the potential association between incarceration and HIV-risk behaviors. Method: This study uses a sample of 445 women with histories of homelessness. Women self-reported lifetime experience of incarceration and recent 6-month participation in 3 risk behaviors: multiple sex partnership, sex trade, and crack/cocaine use. Personal network characteristics included number of network members who had risky sexual behaviors and network members who had ever been incarcerated. Path analysis is used to answer whether incarceration is associated with the 3 risk behaviors and if risky personal networks mediate those relationships. Results: Findings indicate that incarceration is directly and indirectly (through personal networks) associated with all 3 risk behaviors. Though limited by the temporal structure of the data, the associations between incarceration, personal networks, and risk behaviors suggest incarceration can be a standalone correlate of HIV risk. Conclusion: This study validates a need to intervene earlier in the criminal justice process and to incorporate personal network composition into interventions for women with histories of homelessness and incarceration.

Promoting Educational Resiliency in Youth with Incarcerated Parents: The Impact of Parental Incarceration, School Characteristics, and Connectedness on School Outcomes.

The United States has the highest incarceration rate in the world, and as a result, one of the largest populations of incarcerated parents. Growing evidence suggests that the incarceration of a parent may be associated with a number of risk factors in adolescence, including school drop out. Taking a developmental ecological approach, this study used multilevel modeling to examine the association of parental incarceration on truancy, academic achievement, and lifetime educational attainment using the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health (48.3% female; 46% minority status). Individual characteristics, such as school and family connectedness, and school characteristics, such as school size and mental health services, were examined to determine whether they significantly reduced the risk associated with parental incarceration. Our results revealed small but significant risks associated with parental incarceration for all outcomes, above and beyond individual and school level characteristics. Family and school connectedness were identified as potential compensatory factors, regardless of parental incarceration history, for academic achievement and truancy. School connectedness did not reduce the risk associated with parental incarceration when examining highest level of education. This study describes the school related risks associated with parental incarceration, while revealing potential areas for school-based prevention and intervention for adolescents.

Social and Structural Factors Shaping High Rates of Incarceration among Sex Workers in a Canadian Setting.

In light of the emphasis on enforcement-based approaches towards sex work, and the well-known negative impacts of these approaches on women's health, safety and well-being, we conducted a study to investigate the prevalence and correlates of recent incarceration among a cohort of women sex workers in Vancouver, Canada. Data were obtained from an open prospective community cohort of female and transgender women sex workers, known as An Evaluation of Sex Workers' Health Access (AESHA). Bivariate and multivariable logistic regression analyses, using generalized estimating equations (GEE), were used to model the effect of social and structural factors on the likelihood of incarceration over the 44-month follow-up period (January 2010-August 2013). Among 720 sex workers, 62.5 % (n = 450) reported being incarcerated in their lifetime and 23.9 % (n = 172) being incarcerated at least once during the study period. Of the 172 participants, about one third (36.6 %) reported multiple episodes of incarceration. In multivariable GEE analyses, younger age (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.04 per year younger, 95 % confidence interval [CI] 1.02-1.06), being of a sexual/gender minority (AOR = 1.62, 95 % CI 1.13-2.34), heavy drinking (AOR = 1.99, 95 % CI 1.20-3.29), being born in Canada (AOR = 3.28, 95 % CI 1.26-8.53), living in unstable housing conditions (AOR = 4.32, 95 % CI 2.17-8.62), servicing clients in public spaces (versus formal sex work establishments) (AOR = 2.33, 95 % CI 1.05-5.17) and experiencing police harassment without arrest (AOR = 1.82, 95 % CI 1.35-2.45) remain independently correlated with incarceration. This prospective study found a very high prevalence and frequency of incarceration among women sex workers in Vancouver, Canada, with the most vulnerable and marginalized women at increased risk of incarceration. Given the well-known social and health harms associated with incarceration, and associations between police harassment and incarceration in this study, our findings further add to growing calls to move away from criminalized and enforcement-based approaches to sex work in Canada and globally.

Settling Down Behind Bars

In many U.S. states, the number of inmates serving life with or without parole has skyrocketed in recent decades. In Alabama, a state with particularly high incarceration rates, approximately every sixth inmate is serving a life sentence. This research investigates which specific factors led to Alabama’s extensive use of life sentences. Findings suggest that Alabama’s lifer population largely stems from an inadvertent application of the state’s Habitual Felony Offender Statute. Furthermore, the state’s stringent discretionary parole practices have minimized the chances of release for parole-eligible lifers. These factors have contributed to prison overcrowding and the aging of inmates.

Convicted: Toward a Pastoral Theology of Incarceration

In the country with the highest incarceration rate in the world, a thick understanding of the dynamics that make the U.S. a prison society is needed in order to develop an adequate pastoral theological response. This paper examines how socioeconomic oppressive forces - particularly race and class, distortions of the need for safety and images of justice, and psychosocial processes of othering and scapegoating undergird mass incarceration. The author offers suggestions for further theological reflection about the racist, imperial foundations of the justice system.

Collateral consequences: implications of male incarceration rates, imbalanced sex ratios and partner availability for heterosexual Black women

While studies have found correlations between rates of incarceration and sexually transmitted infections (STIs), few studies have explored the mechanisms linking these phenomena. This qualitative study examines how male incarceration rates and sex ratios influence perceived partner availability and sexual partnerships for heterosexual Black women. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 33 Black women living in two US neighbourhoods, one with a high male incarceration rate and an imbalanced sex ratio (referred to as ‘Allentown’) and one with a low male incarceration rate and an equitable sex ratio (referred to as ‘Blackrock’). Data were analysed using grounded theory. In Allentown, male incarceration reduced the number of available men, and participants largely viewed men available for partnerships as being of an undesirable quality. The number and desirability of men impacted on the nature of partnerships such that they were shorter, focused on sexual activity and may be with higher-risk sexual partners (e.g. transactional sex partners). In Blackrock, marriage rates contributed to the shortage of desirable male partners. By highlighting the role that the quantity and quality of male partners has on shaping sexual partnerships, this study advances current understandings of how incarceration and sex ratios shape HIV- and STI-related risk.

Substance Use and HIV Among Female Sex Workers and Female Prisoners: Risk Environments and Implications for Prevention, Treatment, and Policies.

Female sex workers (FSWs) and female prisoners experience elevated HIV prevalence relative to the general population because of unprotected sex and unsafe drug use practices, but the antecedents of these behaviors are often structural in nature. We review the literature on HIV risk environments for FSWs and female prisoners, highlighting similarities and differences in the physical, social, economic, and policy/legal environments that need to be understood to optimize HIV prevention, treatment, and policy responses. Sex work venues, mobility, gender norms, stigma, debt, and the laws and policies governing sex work are important influences in the HIV risk environment among FSWs, affecting their exposure to violence and ability to practice safer sex and safer drug use behaviors. Female prisoners are much more likely to have a drug problem than do male prisoners and have higher HIV prevalence, yet are much less likely to have access to HIV prevention and treatment and access to drug treatment in prison. Women who trade sex or are imprisoned and engage in substance use should not be considered in separate silos because sex workers have high rates of incarceration and many female prisoners have a history of sex work. Repeated cycles of arrest, incarceration, and release can be socially and economically destabilizing for women, exacerbating their HIV risk. This dynamic interplay requires a multisectoral approach to HIV prevention and treatment that appreciates and respects that not all women are willing, able, or want to stop sex work or drug use. Women who engage in sex work, use drugs, or are imprisoned come from all communities and deserve sustained access to HIV prevention and treatment for substance use and HIV, helping them and their families to lead healthy and satisfying lives.

Male Incarceration Rates and Rates of Sexually Transmitted Infections: Results From a Longitudinal Analysis in a Southeastern US City.

In the United States, rates of certain sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are increasing. Contextual factors seem to play an important role in shaping STI transmission dynamics. This longitudinal study explores the relationship between one contextual determinant of health (the male incarceration rate) and rates of newly diagnosed STIs in census tracts in Atlanta, GA. The sample consisted of all census tracts in Atlanta (n = 946). Annual data on STI diagnoses were drawn from the Georgia surveillance system for 2005 to 2010; annual male incarceration data were drawn from the Georgia Department of Corrections for 2005 to 2010; and data on potential confounders were drawn from the US Census. Multivariable growth models were used to examine the association between the male incarceration rate and rates of newly diagnosed STIs, controlling for covariates. Census tracts with higher baseline male incarceration rates had a higher baseline rate of newly diagnosed STIs. Census tracts with increasing male incarceration rates experienced a more rapid increase in their rate of newly diagnosed STIs. Census tracts with medium and high baseline male incarceration rates experienced a decrease in their rate of newly diagnosed STIs over time. The present study strengthens the evidence that male incarceration rates have negative consequences on sexual health outcomes, although the relationship may be more nuanced than originally thought. Future multilevel research should explore individual sexual risk behaviors and networks in the context of high male incarceration rates to better understand how male incarceration shapes rates of STIs.

CARS Comprehensive Intervention for Secondary Students With Emotional and Behavioral Problems

Educating children and youth with significant social, emotional, and behavioral (SEB) problems continues to pose significant challenges for special and general educators. The long-term effects of challenges this group of students experience include school dropout, mental health problems, unemployment, and high incarceration rates. To date, the majority of research examining the efficacy of interventions and supports has been conducted at the elementary level, creating a compelling need for comprehensive examination of interventions and supports for high school students. In this article, we provide a summary of the iterative development process the Center for Adolescent Research in Schools (CARS) undertook to develop a logic model that guided development and implementation of a multi-component intervention incorporating evidence-based practices with adaptations for high school–age students. In addition, we provide an overview of a national randomized control trial, including a review and decision structure to identify multiple outcome measures, which was designed to examine the efficacy of the developed intervention logic model.

Tough Topic, Necessary Reading: Finding Books for Children with Incarcerated Parents

The United States has the highest incarceration rate in the world, and it is estimated that about 53 percent of men and 61 percent of women in the US prison population are parents of minor children.As the number of people incarcerated in US prisons and jails grows, so too does the number of children affected by their parents’ absence. Recent estimates suggest that more than 2.7 million US children now have a parent in prison or jail.

Criminal stigma, race, and ethnicity: The consequences of imprisonment for employment

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to assess the role of race/ethnicity and prior prison sentences on employment opportunities. Secondarily, we compare the impact of applying for jobs (in-person and online), and the role of education in securing employment. This work was conducted in a large southwestern city (Phoenix AZ) with high rates of imprisonment for blacks and Hispanics. MethodsFirst, an audit test involving matched pairs of males within race/ethnicity categories (black, Hispanic, white) who applied for jobs in-person was conducted. More than 500 jobs were applied for by the audit testers. Second, a correspondence test was conducted using three pairs of résumés matched within race/ethnicity. In the correspondence test, over 3,000 jobs were applied for online. Each test used random assignment. Because of its importance for entry level employment, a separate analysis of food service jobs applied for online was conducted. ResultsBoth sets of analyses were completed using cross-classified random effects (CCRE) models. Contrary to expectations, neither race/ethnicity nor prior prison record affected outcomes in the online application process. In contrast, both race/ethnicity and prison record had significant effects in the in-person audit analysis. The effect of a prison record was particularly strong for blacks. ConclusionsRace/ethnicity and prior prison sentence remain important impediments to success in gaining employment. These results are particularly strong for in-person job applications and are somewhat smaller for online job applications.

The Parole System in Georgia and Armenia

A smoothly operating early release system is an important instrument in combating prison overcrowding. Timely preparation for early release plays a key role in establishing fair and humane treatment of those convicts considered ready to return to society. Early conditional release is regarded as one of the most effective and constructive measures, as it not only reduces the length of imprisonment, but also contributes substantially to a planned return of the offender to the community. High rates of imprisonment make various approaches to parole and early release worthy of review, especially concerning how this so-called “back door” mechanism operates in new independent states — in this case, Georgia and Armenia - and how it provides a fair, equal and transparent process to obtain early release from custody. Although Georgia and Armenia are neighbouring countries with similar historical and developmental backgrounds, the parole systems established in these states are totally different. This article aims to review the parole systems of Georgia and Armenia and provide comparative analyses in the context of standards set by the Council of Europe Committee of Ministers Recommendation (2003)22 on conditional release (parole).

Physical growth and ethnic inequality in New Zealand prisons, 1840–1975

The British colonization of New Zealand after 1840 was marked by an unusual concern compared to other settler colonies to incorporate the indigenous Māori population into the new society. But despite a continuing political rhetoric of protection and sovereignty, Māori have historically had lower living standards and, since the 1920s, higher rates of incarceration than European-descended New Zealanders (Pākehā). In this article, the authors examine differences between Māori and Pākehā over 130 years using prison records. Aggregate data from the Ministry of Justice shows long-term change and differences in incarceration rates. Using a data set of all extant registers of men entering New Zealand prisons, the authors show change over time in convictions and in height. The adult statures of Māori and Pākehā were similar for men born before 1900, but marked differences emerged among cohorts born during the twentieth century. By the Second World War, the gap in adult stature widened to around 3 cm, before narrowing for men born after the Second World War. Periods of divergence in stature are paralleled by divergence in fertility and indicators of family size, suggesting the possibility that increasing fertility stressed the economic situation of Māori families. The prison evidence suggests that inequalities in ‘net nutrition’ between Māori and Pākehā are long-standing but not unchanging – indeed, they increased for cohorts born in the early twentieth century. A subset of the data describing adolescents confirms that, among those born after 1945, the ethnic differential was already visible by the age of 16.

Ecological analysis examining the association between census tract-level incarceration and reported chlamydia incidence among female adolescents and young adults in San Francisco

ObjectivesIncarceration has been linked to increased risk of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). We conducted a census tract-level ecological analysis to explore the relationship between neighbourhood incarceration rates and chlamydia incidence...

Release from incarceration, relapse to opioid use and the potential for buprenorphine maintenance treatment: a qualitative study of the perceptions of former inmates with opioid use disorder.

BackgroundThe United States has the highest rate of incarceration in the world (937 per 100,000 adults). Approximately one-third of heroin users pass through correctional facilities annually. Few receive medication assisted treatment (MAT; either methadone or buprenorphine) for opioid use disorder during incarceration, and nearly three-quarters relapse to heroin use within 3 months of release. This qualitative study investigated barriers to and facilitators of buprenorphine maintenance treatment (BMT) following release from incarceration (“re-entry”).MethodsWe conducted 21 semistructured interviews of former inmates with opioid use disorder recruited from addiction treatment settings. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using a grounded theory approach. Themes that emerged upon iterative readings of transcripts were discussed by the research team.ResultsParticipants reported adverse re-entry conditions, including persistent exposure to drug use and stressful life events, which were perceived to contribute to opioid relapse and affected addiction treatment decisions during re-entry. Themes that emerged relating to BMT included: 1) reliance on willpower; 2) fear of dependency on medications; 3) variable exposure to buprenorphine; and 4) acceptability of BMT following relapse. Willpower was perceived to be more important for recovery than medications. Many participants experienced painful withdrawal from methadone during incarceration and were fearful that using MAT would lead to opioid tolerance and painful withdrawal again in the future. Participants reported both positive and negative experiences taking illicit buprenorphine, which affected interest in BMT. Overall, BMT was perceived to be a good treatment option for opioid use disorder that could reduce the risk of re-incarceration.ConclusionsBMT was perceived to be acceptable, but former inmates with opioid use disorder may be reluctant to utilize BMT upon re-entry. Factors limiting utilization of BMT could be mitigated though policy change or interventions. Policies of the criminal justice system (e.g., forced detoxification) may be dissuading former inmates from utilizing effective treatments for opioid use disorder. Interventions that improve education and access to BMT for former inmates with opioid use disorder could facilitate entrance into treatment. Both policy changes and interventions are urgently needed to reduce the negative consequences of opioid relapse following re-entry.

Transmission clustering among newly diagnosed HIV patients in Chicago, 2008 to 2011: using phylogenetics to expand knowledge of regional HIV transmission patterns.

HIV transmission cluster analyses can inform HIV prevention efforts. We describe the first such assessment for transmission clustering among HIV patients in Chicago. We performed transmission cluster analyses using HIV pol sequences from newly diagnosed patients presenting to Chicago's largest HIV clinic between 2008 and 2011. We compared sequences through progressive pairwise alignment, using neighbor joining to construct an unrooted phylogenetic tree. We defined clusters as >2 sequences among which each sequence had at least 1 partner within a genetic distance of ≤1.5%. We used multivariable regression to examine factors associated with clustering and used geospatial analysis to assess geographic proximity of phylogenetically clustered patients. We compared sequences from 920 patients, median age of 35 years, 75% male, 67% black, 23% Hispanic, and 8% had a rapid plasma reagin titer ≥1:16 concurrent with their HIV diagnosis. We had HIV transmission risk data for 54%; 43% identified as men who have sex with men (MSM). Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated 123 patients (13%) grouped into 26 clusters, the largest having 20 members. In multivariable regression, age <25, black race, MSM status, male gender, higher HIV viral load, and rapid plasma reagin ≥1:16 associated with clustering. We did not observe geographic grouping of genetically clustered patients. Our results demonstrate high rates of HIV transmission clustering, without local geographic foci, among young black MSM in Chicago. Applied prospectively, phylogenetic analyses could guide prevention efforts and help break the cycle of transmission.

La méthamphétamine – un stimulant comme les autres ou un problème plus complexe ?

Methamphetamine (MA) has recently become very popular in the media, due in part to its increasing popularity as well as its psychotropic effects and the negative consequences of its use. Is it a stimulant like any other, or does methamphetamine use lead to specific difficulties in its users? The aim of this article is to provide a brief review of the literature by explaining some of the reasons for its popularity in Canada as well as the physical, dental, psychiatric, cognitive and legal problems associated with its use. MA's popularity: Regarding its popularity, MA has benefitted from multiple factors, namely its low cost for users and manufacturers, its quick and intense psychotropic effects (increased energy, sexual arousal, rapid thinking, sleeplessness, lack of appetite), its easy access, as well as its various methods of ingestion (nasal, oral, injection). MA abuse also results in a multitude of negative effects, both physical and mental. MA's physical effects: In terms of negative physical effects, cardiac problems, skin infections, sexually transmitted (and injection-related) diseases as well as meth mouth are described. MA's mental effects: In terms of mental consequences, two recently published Canadian studies revealing high rates of depression symptoms and of sustained psychotic symptoms in a subgroup of MA users are presented. Studies reporting various cognitive deficits in MA user are also reviewed, including reports of high prevalence of childhood attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder diagnoses among adult MA users. Furthermore, MA abusers are documented as having been highly exposed to trauma in their lives, with many presenting with post-traumatic stress disorder criteria. This manuscript also explores the reasons behind the forensic profiles of individuals using MA, particularly the increased tendency toward violent acts, the high incarceration rates of the homeless users and the high percentage of individuals diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder reported in studies. In terms of user profiles, various methods of ingestion, frequency of use as well as combination with other drugs are described, with a special focus on the frequent polysubstance abuse found in MA users and the reality of bingers. This manuscript describes specific treatments designed for stimulant users such as MA abusers, namely the MATRIX program, as well as modifications piloted for those with comorbid depression. Pharmacological treatments, as well as antioxidant supplements, are also discussed although they have not yielded positive results with humans to date. Overall, our goal in this manuscript is to highlight the complexity of the difficulties faced by MA users as well as the limited ability of currently available treatments to address the multiple needs associated with this complexity.

Getting Away With Murder: Acquittals in High-Profile CasesGetting Away With Murder: Acquittals in High-Profile Cases

Have you ever wondered why our legal system is so inconsistent and baffling? Have you asked why some apparently guilty, high-profile defendants are acquitted but innocent people are convicted or accept a plea agreement? Or why the American criminal justice and penal systems appear so unjust, with the United States having the highest rate of incarceration in the world, a penal population of over two million people, and one third of young African American men involved in the criminal justice system (Alexander, 2010; Ferguson, 2014)? Richard Gabriel’s Acquittal: An Insider Reveals the Stories and Strategies Behind Today’s Most Infamous Verdicts answers some of these questions. Gabriel explains how the U.S. legal system works, provides extensive insider information about the actual trial process, and discusses six well-known criminal cases, many of which resulted in acquittals. Gabriel is neither a lawyer nor a psychologist. Yet he has lived in the psycholegal world his entire life, having grown up with a mother who was a judge and a father who was a psychologist. He indicates having worked as a trial consultant for almost 30 years and on more than 1,000 cases, many of which were nationally prominent.