High-power Heating Research Articles

The interface design of storage and examination system for BWR spent nuclear fuel dry storage demonstration project in Taiwan

Due to the lack of Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) fuel examination data after dry storage, Taiwan Power Company and Institute of Nuclear Energy Research jointly launched the “Taiwan Nuclear Fuel Storage Demonstration Project” to collect fuel characteristics data under simulated dry storage. To meet the project requirements, BWR fuel rods in different fuel designs will be selected and then store in simulated storage containers in different environments for 10 years. The interface considerations and design results of the auxiliary equipment for spent nuclear fuel storage, transfer, and non-destructive testing in the simulation stage of spent fuel dry storage were summarized. In addition, the possibility of operating at high heating power and avoiding deformation of the components due to thermal extension of the storage containers after heating was included in the design consideration. A simplification concept was introduced, with frequent NDT (Non-destructive Testing) inspections that will be performed through the spent fuel transfer process. The test results showed that the interface design can meet the requirements of long-term experiment, maintenance and radiation protection requirements, and is ready for further demonstration.

Low Energy Switching of Phase Change Materials Using a 2D Thermal Boundary Layer.

The switchable optical and electrical properties of phase change materials (PCMs) are finding new applications beyond data storage in reconfigurable photonic devices. However, high power heat pulses are needed to melt-quench the material from crystalline to amorphous. This is especially true in silicon photonics, where the high thermal conductivity of the waveguide material makes heating the PCM energy inefficient. Here, we improve the energy efficiency of the laser-induced phase transitions by inserting a layer of two-dimensional (2D) material, either MoS2 or WS2, between the silica or silicon substrate and the PCM. The 2D material reduces the required laser power by at least 40% during the amorphization (RESET) process, depending on the substrate. Thermal simulations confirm that both MoS2 and WS2 2D layers act as a thermal barrier, which efficiently confines energy within the PCM layer. Remarkably, the thermal insulation effect of the 2D layer is equivalent to a ∼100 nm layer of SiO2. The high thermal boundary resistance induced by the van der Waals (vdW)-bonded layers limits the thermal diffusion through the layer interface. Hence, 2D materials with stable vdW interfaces can be used to improve the thermal efficiency of PCM-tuned Si photonic devices. Furthermore, our waveguide simulations show that the 2D layer does not affect the propagating mode in the Si waveguide; thus, this simple additional thin film produces a substantial energy efficiency improvement without degrading the optical performance of the waveguide. Our findings pave the way for energy-efficient laser-induced structural phase transitions in PCM-based reconfigurable photonic devices.

Effect of spoiler columns on heat transfer performance of aluminum nitride-based microchannel heat sink

Microchannel heat sinks (MCHSs) are among the most effective solutions for high-power heating elements; aluminium nitride (AlN) is widely used in various heat sinks owing to its high thermal conductivity. The study aims to investigate the effect of the spoiler column shape, number of rows, and position of the inlet/outlet on the temperature and pressure drop of AlN-based microchannel heat sink using a thermal fluid structure coupling simulation. The results showed that the circular spoiler column had the best dredging effect on the eddy current, which greatly improved the local Nusselt number and heat transfer efficiency. The maximum temperature of the heat sink with circular spoiler columns was 6.53 K lower than that without the spoiler column. The average flow velocity and heat transfer efficiency increased with an increase in the number of spoiler columns and the convective heat transfer area. However, the flow resistance and pressure drop between the inlet and outlet raised. When the inlet and outlet were arranged at the centreline, the flow velocity distribution in the heat sink is more uniform, and the maximum temperature was 160.78 K lower than that on the upper side. Heat transfer experiments were carried out by using three kinds of AlN-based microchannel heat sinks, which was machined by the pickling-assisted laser method. The heat transfer experiments showed that the error between simulation results and test data was less than 0.1%.

Experimental Analysis of Temperature-Control Curtain Regulating Outflow Temperature in a Thermal-Stratified Reservoir.

The construction of reservoir dams has changed the environment and natural properties of the river course, and deep-water reservoirs present an obvious phenomenon of thermal stratification. Low-temperature outflow water in spring and summer will have a negative impact on the downstream ecological environment. Therefore, it is necessary to take selective withdrawal measures to regulate low-temperature outflow water. The temperature-control curtain project has the advantages of low cost, convenient construction and wide application. Based on the topographic data, a laboratory test model for regulating outflow temperature by a temperature-control curtain is established. A high-power electric heating system is adopted to form a nonlinear thermal stratification. The accuracy of the test data is verified by the prototype observed water temperature. The main parameters affecting the outflow temperature are investigated, including thermal stratification, flow height above the temperature-control curtain, water level, and discharge flow. The results show the following: firstly, the outflow temperature mainly depends on the thermal stratification, decreases with the increase of water level, and increases with the increase of discharge flow; secondly, the effect of a temperature-control curtain on improving the outflow temperature is directly related to the thermal stratification in different months, and the improvement effect is better in spring and summer; finally, the improvement effect increases with the decrease of flow height above the temperature-control curtain, increases with the increase of water level, and decreases with the increase of discharge flow.

Microwave heating and fracturing of granite: Insights from infrared thermal imaging

Microwave heating has been considered as one of the promising rock breaking technologies. However, the non-uniform temperature distribution of microwave treated rocks has not been quantitatively studied and the microwave rock fracturing mechanisms have not been systematically revealed. In this paper, microwave heating tests were implemented using a 6 kW industrial microwave system. The ratio of maximum temperature to average temperature () was studied to characterize the non-uniformity of temperature. The temperature gradient and maximum temperature difference were calculated to quantitatively characterize the thermal stress. Experimental results indicate that the granite fracture temperature threshold is about 200 °C and cracking typically occurs at a minimum temperature gradient of 6 °C/mm. As either power level or irradiation time increases, the thermal gradient and temperature difference increase. For a fixed microwave energy, microwave heating at higher power levels for a shorter duration has a higher and a greater temperature difference and temperature gradient, which explains that the combination of high power and short heating time yields better rock weakening effects.

Divertor detachment operation in helium plasmas with ITER-like tungsten divertor in EAST

Detachment in helium (He) discharges has been achieved in the EAST superconducting tokamak equipped with an ITER-like tungsten divertor. This paper presents the experimental observations of divertor detachment achieved by increasing the plasma density in He discharges. During density ramp-up, the particle flux shows a clear rollover, while the electron temperature around the outer strike point is decreasing simultaneously. The divertor detachment also exhibits a significant difference from that observed in comparable deuterium (D) discharges. The density threshold of detachment in the He plasma is higher than that in the D plasma for the same heating power, and increases with the heating power. Moreover, detachment assisted with neon (Ne) seeding was also performed in L- and H-mode plasmas, pointing to the direction for reducing the density threshold of detachment in He operation. However, excessive Ne seeding causes confinement degradation during the divertor detachment phase. The precise feedback control of impurity seeding will be performed in EAST to improve the compatibility of core plasma performance with divertor detachment for future high heating power operations.

Experimental study on dynamic characteristics of cylindrical horizontal axially rotating heat pipe

• Rotating heat pipe can startup rapidly on normal conditions. • Temperature fluctuation can be inhibited by the rotation of rotating heat pipe. • Failure phenomenon caused by rotating speed variation is irreversible. • Occurrence of failure phenomenon is closely related to initial conditions. • High rotating speed can inhibit the failure phenomenon. Rotating heat pipe (RHP) has wide application prospects in the field of heat dissipation of rotating machinery. But researches on the dynamic characteristics of RHP are very few at present, which limits its application on real engineering. In this paper, the dynamic characteristics of RHP are investigated experimentally, including: startup characteristic, temperature fluctuation, and failure phenomenon. Results show that the rotating motion can obviously improve the performance of RHP during its startup process. Temperature fluctuation is obvious at 0 RPM, the fluctuation frequency increases and the fluctuation amplitude decreases with the increase of heating power. Rotation of RHP will obviously inhibit the temperature fluctuation. RHP will encounter failure phenomenon. Failure phenomenon is prone to occur under low filling ratio, low cooling temperature, and high heating power. Low rotating speed is easy to induce failure phenomenon and high rotating speed can restrain failure phenomenon. Increasing filling ratio can effectively inhibit failure. There are two inertial effects on failure phenomenon: the irreversibility of failure phenomenon caused by change of rotating speed and the hysteresis of the influence of cooling temperature variation on failure phenomenon. The dynamic performance of RHP is influenced by the inertial effects, the intrinsic mechanism is non-linear.

Robust photothermal anti-icing/deicing via flexible CMDSP carbon nanotube films

Photothermal anti-icing/deicing technology is an environmentally friendly surface technology that can be applied to the surface of aircraft, vehicles or ships. However, it is still a huge challenge to develop a strong and stable flexible film that can efficiently convert light to heat. Here, based on a simple electrochemical method to construct a zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoneedles structure on the surface of the carbon nanotube film, a film with the function of condensed micro-droplet self-propelling (CMDSP) was successfully prepared. The prepared film has excellent light absorption capacity and high energy transfer efficiency (76.71%). The film has strong photothermal anti-icing/deicing performance. Under 4406 Lux light irradiation, even under low temperature conditions of −5 °C, the icing delay time exceeds 4 h. This novel characteristic is attributed to the CMDSP function on the surface and the ultra-fast evaporation mechanism, which can remove water droplets on the surface as quickly as possible. This function helps to design energy-saving equipment that requires high-power heating and deicing.

Analysis on Flow and Temperature Field of High-Power Magnetorheological Fluid Transmission Device

Aiming to solve the problem of high-power magnetorheological fluid transmission heat dissipation, a new type of magnetorheological fluid drive disk is designed. The characteristics of the flow field and temperature field of high power MR fluid transmission devices are analyzed. Meanwhile, the influence of factors, such as rotating speed, inlet velocity, inlet position, diameter and number of magnetic columns, on the flow field are also investigated. Furthermore, the distribution characteristics of the ultimate slip power and the transient temperature field are obtained. The experimental platform of an MR fluid transmission device was established, and the torque transfer performance and heat dissipation performance were tested. The experimental results show that the device has good heat dissipation performance and can transfer high-power torque.

Flow distribution and cooling performance of needle-to-ring ionic wind blowers with multiple electrodes

Electronics have an increased thermal flow density due to the development of miniaturization and high integration. Effective heat management is a pressing technological issue that must be addressed. Ionic wind cooling technology is gaining popularity as a means of improving local heat dissipation. Ionic wind blowers with two non-uniform ‘needles-to-ring' subunits in series were proposed in the present work. The dynamic evolution process and flow distribution characteristics of the ionic wind for different combined structures were investigated. The operation and maintenance characteristics were optimized to increase ionic wind strength. Experiments are performed to explore the variability of system temperature and mean heat transfer coefficient when the combined ionic wind blowers are employed to improve cooling performance. The results reveal that by employing an additional collecting electrode, charged particles may be accelerated twice, increasing the ionic wind intensity. The dual-stage ionic wind blower with D1=32 mm and D2=22 mm has a greater mean velocity and a wider flow dispersion than the others. There will be apparent backflow near the ring electrode during the early stages of ionic wind production, but the backflow steadily lessens until it evaporates. The operating performance of a dual-stage blower is better when cooling a high-power heat source.

Visualization research on influencing factors of flat heat pipes

Flat heat pipes can effectively spread a concentrated high power heat source in a small region into a larger heat dissipation area, which is widely used in the thermal management of electronic devices. In this paper, two different sintered copper powder wick structures are designed to study the effect of porous column height on the heat transfer performance. The results show that the best performance is achieved at the 30% filling ratio under the 15 ℃ cooling water with all the porous columns contacting with the condenser. The heat power is 312.7 W and the thermal resistance is 0.192 ℃/W. As the cooling water temperature increases, the evaporation rate increases, resulting in a decrease in the thermal resistance. But the decrease in temperature difference causes the decline in heat dissipation power. Through the visual observation, it is found that the porous column contacting with the condenser can not only play the role of support and liquid reflow pathway, but also serve as an effective evaporation area to improve the heat transfer performance. While the low porous column cannot transport the condensed liquid and is completely immersed by the liquid under the high filling ratio, which is difficult to promote evaporation rate. In order to improve the performance at air cooling situation, an integrated heat pipe combined the flat heat pipe and fin tubes is designed, which can achieve a heat power of 259.8 W and present excellent temperature uniformity. This research provides the guidelines to optimize the heat transfer performance of porous column wick structures.

A novel measurement of marginal Alfvén eigenmode stability during high power auxiliary heating in JET

The interaction of Alfvén eigenmodes (AEs) and energetic particles is one of many important factors determining the success of future tokamaks. In JET, eight in-vessel antennas were installed to actively probe stable AEs with frequencies ranging 25–250 kHz and toroidal mode numbers |n| < 20. During the 2019–2020 deuterium campaign, almost 7500 resonances and their frequencies f 0, net damping rates γ < 0, and toroidal mode numbers were measured in almost 800 plasma discharges. From a statistical analysis of this database, continuum and radiative damping are inferred to increase with edge safety factor, edge magnetic shear, and when including non-ideal effects. Both stable AE observations and their associated damping rates are found to decrease with |n|. Active antenna excitation is also found to be ineffective in H-mode as opposed to L-mode; this is likely due to the increased edge density gradient’s effect on accessibility and ELM-related noise’s impact on mode identification. A novel measurement is reported of a marginally stable, edge-localized ellipticity-induced AE probed by the antennas during high-power auxiliary heating (ion cyclotron resonance heating and neutral beam injection) up to 25 MW. NOVA-K kinetic-MHD simulations show good agreement with experimental measurements of f 0, γ, and n, indicating the dominance of continuum and electron Landau damping in this case. Similar experimental and computational studies are planned for the recent hydrogen and ongoing tritium campaigns, in preparation for the upcoming DT campaign.

High-βp scenario realized by the integration of internal and external transport barriers in the HL-2A tokamak

High-βp scenario addresses needs for an attractive tokamak fusion reactor design, where βp is the normalized plasma poloidal beta. High-βp experiments have been performed during recent years in the HL-2A tokamak. The high-performance region is realized by the integration of internal and external transport barriers which are dubbed as ITBs and ETBs, namely, double transport barriers (DTBs), with the high-power NBI heating. Generally, the ITB forms and becomes strong after the NBI injection on HL-2A. Subsequently, the edge ion temperature and toroidal rotation increase, as a result that the ETB or pedestal creates and L-H transition occurs. A high-βp (βp∼3) scenario is obtained with Ip∼110 kA and q95∼5, and another high-βp (βp∼2.7) scenario is also realized with Ip∼160 kA and q95∼4.2. The two high-βp scenarios are both characterized by a large-radius ITB and an ETB. However, the two scenarios are different. For the former there are strong large-radius ITB and weak ETB on radial ion temperature profiles, but for the later there are weak large-radius ITB and strong ETB. Although two high-βp scenarios on HL-2A have been accessed, however they are both transient. In addition, MHD instabilities in high-βp scenarios are also present for a high fusion gain and reactor relevant high fusion-density plasma.

Intense cyclic heating effects on thermo-fracture and thermal shock of solid tungsten and open-cell tungsten foam

We investigate here the effects of transient (cyclic) arc-jet plasma and laser heating on fracture behavior of W-foam and solid tungsten. The two key parameters that control the foam thermomechanical response are its density and mean cell size expressed in Pores Per Inch (PPI). Tungsten foam samples were fabricated with Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) with variety of PPI and relative density. These were tested under two types of qualitatively different conditions: (1) high-enthalpy arc-jet, and (2) high-power cyclic laser heating. None of the foam samples showed macroscopic through-thickness cracks. However, distributed micro-cracks were observed on ligaments and their triple junctions. Under the same loading conditions, W-foam and solid tungsten showed similar crack network pattern and characteristic length-scale. However, Crack Opening Displacement (COD) was twice as large in solid W as compared to W-foam. Foam samples that have been previously exposed to a low-pressure helium plasma showed significant changes in their surface forming nano-texture fuzz which was removed by subsequent testing in the arc-jet. Extensive fracture and re-crystallization were observed in the thin solid W disk that was fully-constrained from expansion. Thicker and fully-constrained solid W disks did not display recrystallization, grain growth, and extensive cracking. However, thicker disks that were free to expand showed some recrystallization and extensive through-thickness cracks due to less effective cooling and thus higher temperatures. Laser beam testing showed no visible damage formation at 0.19 GW/m2 and 0.38 GW/m2 for both low-density (23%) and high-density (43%) foams at low pulses (100-1000). Micro-cracks were observed after 10,000 pulses at 0.19 GW/m2 in both foams, and in low-density foam after 100,000 at 0.38 GW/m2. The nature of thermomechanical damage in W-foam exposed to extreme power (GW/m2) short-duration laser pulses was found to be qualitatively similar to that of high power (MW/m2) long-duration arc-jet.

Confinement properties of L-mode plasmas in ASDEX Upgrade and full-radius predictions of the TGLF transport model

The properties of L-mode confinement have been investigated with a set of dedicated experiments in ASDEX Upgrade and with a related modelling activity with the transport code ASTRA and the quasi-linear turbulent transport model TGLF–SAT2, with boundary conditions at the separatrix. The values at the boundary have been set by the two-point model for the electron temperature, with the ion temperature proportional to the electron temperature by a constant factor, and the electron density set by a constant fraction of the volume averaged density. The influx of neutrals has been set through a feedback procedure which ensures that in the simulation the same particle content as in the experiment is obtained. The sensitivity of the results under considerable variations in the choice of the boundary conditions has been investigated and found to be limited. The predictions of this full-radius modelling set-up have been compared to experimental results covering a scan in electron cyclotron resonance heating (ECRH) power in both hydrogen and deuterium plasmas, a plasma current scan with fixed magnetic field, under both ECRH and neutral beam injection heating, an increase in plasma density with constant ECRH power in hydrogen plasmas, as well as variations of the fraction of electron and ion heating at approximately constant total heating power, as well as a change of main ion from deuterium to hydrogen. The ASTRA-TGLF predictions have been found to reproduce all of the experimentally explored dependences with relatively good accuracy, providing evidence, for the first time to our knowledge, that the main properties of L-mode confinement can be reproduced by conventional full-radius transport modelling with a quasi-linear turbulent transport model. Evidences of largest disagreement, although usually not exceeding the 20%, have been found at high electron heating power, where TGLF underpredicts the electron and particularly the ion thermal stored energies, and in the current dependence of confinement, which, in electron heated conditions, is predicted to be weaker than in the experiment.

Impedance matching system using triple liquid stub tuners for high-power ion cyclotron resonance heating in EAST tokamak.

Ion cyclotron resonance heating (ICRH), one of the main auxiliary methods, for high-power and long-pulse plasma heating had been developed in Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST). An impedance matching system, one important part of ICRH, had been developed for high-power injection and transmitter protection by reducing the reflected power from the antenna. The input impedance in the outlet of the stub tuner can be measured by voltage-current probes installed on the coaxial transmission line between the antenna and triple liquid stub tuners, and the optimum liquid levels in the stub tuners can be calculated based on the input impedance. The calculation and adjustment process of the optimum liquid levels are described comprehensively in this article. Finally, impedance matching had been achieved between two shots during EAST experiments. In the near future, a real-time impedance matching system will be developed to prevent large variations of the ICRH antenna impedance and achieve steady-state and long-pulse operation with the ICRH system.

Progress from ASDEX Upgrade experiments in preparing the physics basis of ITER operation and DEMO scenario development

An overview of recent results obtained at the tokamak ASDEX Upgrade (AUG) is given. A work flow for predictive profile modelling of AUG discharges was established which is able to reproduce experimental H-mode plasma profiles based on engineering parameters only. In the plasma center, theoretical predictions on plasma current redistribution by a dynamo effect were confirmed experimentally. For core transport, the stabilizing effect of fast ion distributions on turbulent transport is shown to be important to explain the core isotope effect and improves the description of hollow low-Z impurity profiles. The L–H power threshold of hydrogen plasmas is not affected by small helium admixtures and it increases continuously from the deuterium to the hydrogen level when the hydrogen concentration is raised from 0 to 100%. One focus of recent campaigns was the search for a fusion relevant integrated plasma scenario without large edge localised modes (ELMs). Results from six different ELM-free confinement regimes are compared with respect to reactor relevance: ELM suppression by magnetic perturbation coils could be attributed to toroidally asymmetric turbulent fluctuations in the vicinity of the separatrix. Stable improved confinement mode plasma phases with a detached inner divertor were obtained using a feedback control of the plasma β. The enhanced D α H-mode regime was extended to higher heating power by feedback controlled radiative cooling with argon. The quasi-coherent exhaust regime was developed into an integrated scenario at high heating power and energy confinement, with a detached divertor and without large ELMs. Small ELMs close to the separatrix lead to peeling-ballooning stability and quasi continuous power exhaust. Helium beam density fluctuation measurements confirm that transport close to the separatrix is important to achieve the different ELM-free regimes. Based on separatrix plasma parameters and interchange-drift-Alfvén turbulence, an analytic model was derived that reproduces the experimentally found important operational boundaries of the density limit and between L- and H-mode confinement. Feedback control for the X-point radiator (XPR) position was established as an important element for divertor detachment control. Stable and detached ELM-free phases with H-mode confinement quality were obtained when the XPR was moved 10 cm above the X-point. Investigations of the plasma in the future flexible snow-flake divertor of AUG by means of first SOLPS-ITER simulations with drifts activated predict beneficial detachment properties and the activation of an additional strike point by the drifts.

The measurements by diamagnetic loops in EAST

The measurement of the diamagnetic flux for poloidal beta and energy content of EAST based on diamagnetic loops is described in this article. The error sources can be well compensated with the diamagnetic loop and the compensation loop signals. And the maximum error of vacuum flux under experiments without plasmas is about 0.11 mWb, which meet the typical experimental requirements for high βp discharges (βp∼2.5). For ohmic discharges, the stored energy determined from the diamagnetic flux measurement Wdia is in good agreement with that from the equilibrium reconstruction Wmhd. After the auxiliary heating power are injected into plasmas, the increment of the energy content is observed to verify the heating effects of different heating systems. With the upgrade of 2021, the recent campaign has shown a good response between the diamagnetic flux measurements and rapid stored energy drop induced by edge localized modes (ELMs). The preliminary experimental results indicate that plasma anisotropic degree decreases with increasing density under operation conditions with high density and high heating power.

Semi-batch evaporative crystallization and drying of cobalt sulphate hydrates

Semi-batch evaporative crystallization of CoSO4 was investigated at various underpressures and with different heating powers. The underpressures for boiling aqueous CoSO4 solutions at various temperatures and concentrations were measured and compared to predicted values obtained by the Aspen Plus Version 11 process simulation software. The presence of CoSO4 solute decreased the underpressure for boiling solution in comparison to pure water. In the evaporative crystallization experiments, CoSO4 crystallized as CoSO4.7H2O at evaporation temperatures of 30 °C and 40 °C, whereas CoSO4.6H2O crystallized at 60 °C and 80 °C. The crystals obtained at 30 °C and 40 °C were mainly agglomerates of octahedron shaped particles. Heating power and mixing speed had significant effects on the evaporation flux and particle size distribution of the products. Smaller crystals were produced with higher heating power and higher mixing speed due to the enhancement of evaporation. Dehydration of the formed cobalt sulfate heptahydrate in the drying process was also investigated with two variables: drying temperature and drying time. The crystallization at 40 °C yielded unstable CoSO4.7H2O, which tended to dehydrate in a temperature range between 23 °C and 60 °C; these crystals were used in the study of crystal drying. At a drying temperature of 23 °C, CoSO4.7H2O transferred and stabilized as CoSO4.6H2O. At drying temperatures of 40 °C and 60 °C, the stable hydrate form was CoSO4.H2O. Gravimetric analysis, crystal habit, XRD, and Raman analyses were successfully utilized for the investigation of the transformation of the hydrate form during drying.

High power experiment and heat load evaluation of transmission line for the ECH/CD system in JT-60SA

Temperature rise of the waveguide transmission line for high-power long-pulse ECH/CD system has been evaluated experimentally using the dummy load transmission line in JT-60SA. It has been demonstrated that the waveguide components with the inner diameter of 60.3 mm are applicable for 1 MW/100 s transmission at 110/138 GHz required in JT-60SA. A newly developed pre-load installed in front of the dummy load reduced the temperature rise of the waveguide due to the reflection from the dummy load. With this pre-load, the temperature rise distribution in the 37 m-long test transmission line was measured to simulate the real transmission line condition for tokamak experiment. As a result of the high-power experiments, it has been clarified that the temperature of the waveguides close to miter-bends could be increased by approximately 120 K for 1 MW/100 s operation at 110 GHz, in the worst case, and it is marginal for the stable operation with the waveguides made of aluminum alloy. The heat loads on the waveguides have been evaluated as 23 kW/m2 for the worst case between miter bends, 12–23 kW/m2 within 4 m from miter bend and 4–12 kW/m2 for waveguide far from miter bends. The evaluated heat loads will be taken into account for the final design of the TL components and cooling for the JT-60SA ECH/CD system.