High Electrochemical Capacitors Research Articles

Electrochemical synthesis of polyaniline films on activated carbon for supercapacitor application

In this paper, polyaniline (PANI) film was prepared on the surface of commercially available activated carbon (AC) to from AC–PANI electrode by Electrochemical method. Compared with each individual component the synthesized electrode shows higher electrochemical capacitance as well as excellent cycling stability. The specific capacitance can achieve a maximum of 240 F/g at a charge–discharge density of 0.2 A/g and still exhibits as high as 157 F/g at 10 A/g. Moreover, the composites retain about 83% at a current density of 2 A/g after 500 cycles, indicating excellent stability of that electrode. As a result, the low-cost AC–PANI electrode material indicates great potential for commercial application.

Li-Ion Nanotubes for Li-Ion and Li-Sulphur Batteries

Rechargeable lithium-ion batteries are considered to be the most promising energy storage due to their long cycle life and high specific capacity.[i] However, existing lithium-ion batteries use graphite as anode material and this is not efficient enough to reach market level to be employed in vehicles. There are still some challenges to develop more in anode material to enhance their performance to meet the requirements for efficient energy storage. [ii] Silicon has been regarded as the most promising candidate to replace graphite anode material due to its excellent merits in high theoretical electrochemical capacity. It is safe to use in high-power applications due to its low discharge potential. [iii] However, the commercial application of Silicon in the battery is still not progressed due to severe mechanical damage because of volume expansion and contraction of Si electrodes during cycling operation. This could cause pulverisation and loss of capacity[iv] An effective way to solve this problem is the employment of nanostructure which are capable of minimising the volume change due to small size and available surrounding free space.[v]The aim is to synthesise and lithiate silicon nanotubes, then employ the lithiated nanotubes as an anode material in both Li-ion as well as Li-sulphur batteries. This would improve the electrochemical performance by enhancing the cycling performance and higher reversible specific capacity may be achieved. [i] M.Rosa Palacin, Chemical Society Reviews, 2009, 38, 2565-2575. [ii] S. Flandrois, B.Simon, Carbon, 1999, 37, 165-180. [iii] J. Cho, Journal of Materials Chemistry, 2010, 20, 4009-4014. [iv] D. Billaud, E. Mcrae and A. Herold, Mater. Res. Bull., 1979, 14, 857–864. [v] J. Bae, J. Solid State Chemistry, 2011, 184, 1749–1755.

Solvothermal Synthesis of Copper Ferrite-Graphene Nanocomposite As a Supercapacitor Electrode Material

In recent years, electrochemical supercapacitors have attracted great attention due to their advantages of short charging times, a long cycle, and high power density. In order to fullfill the market demand for further improved performance, the design of materials with a longer cycling lifetime, higher energy density and economic efficiency is imperative for supercapacitor electrode. Since the performance of electrode materials for supercapacitors is dependent on the accessible specific surface area and the pore structure, the control over structure and morphology of electrode materials is an effective strategy to render them high surface area and efficient paths for ion diffusion. Recently, the applications of graphene based nanocomposites for supercapacitor have attracted much research interest.Here, a simple method to prepare a uniform sized copper ferrite nanoparticles attached graphene nanosheet is reported. A one-step solvothermal method featuring the reduction of graphene oxide and formation of copper ferrite nanoparticles was efficient, green, and controllable. The composite nanosheet was characterized by using X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, which demonstrated that the copper ferrite nanoparticles with a diameter of approximately 100 nm were densely and compactly deposited on graphene nanosheet. To investigate the formation mechanism of the copper ferrite nanoparticles attached graphene nanosheet, the effects of a series of experimental parameters, including the concentrations of the precursor, precipitation agent, stabilizer agent, and graphene oxide on the size and morphology of the resulting products were discussed in detail. Furthermore, the electrochemical performances of the copper ferrite nanoparticles attached graphene nanosheet as electrode material for supercapacitor were studied by using cyclic voltammetry and galvanostatic charge-discharge measurements. The nanocomposite showed high electrochemical capacitance of 576.6 F/g at 1 A/g, good rate performance and cycling stability. These results demonstrated that the nanocomposite had a high specific capacitance and good retention. The versatile copper ferrite-graphene nanocomposite held great promise for a wide range of electrochemical fields due to the remarkable synergistic effects between copper ferrite nanoparticles and graphene.

Nanoporous Metal Papers for Scalable Hierarchical Electrode.

Nanoporous metals similar to paper in form are developed using Japanese washi paper as a template to create hierarchical porous electrodes. This method is used to create a trimodal -nanoporous Au electrode, as a well as a hierarchical NiMn electrode that achieves high electrochemical capacitance and a rapid rate of oxygen evolution.

Polymer–carbonaceous composites as electrode materials with high electrochemical capacitance

Using the aniline oxidative polymerization, polyaniline–carbonaceous material composites were synthesized, in which polymer layer at the carbon particle surface forms fibers oriented perpendicularly to the support surface. Conductivity, surface properties, and electrochemical activity of the composites in wide composition range are studied. The composites with fibrous morphology of polymer layer are shown to have much higher electrochemical capacitance than those with dense and homogeneous polyaniline layer.

Finite Element Modeling (FEM) of the Effects of Elastic Buffer Layer on the Stability of a-Si Thin Film Patterned Li-Ion Anode

Lithium ion batteries with improved capacity and cycling performance are being envisaged as the most promising energy storage device for applications ranging from cell phones, laptop computers to car batteries. Tremendous research effort has been directed towards finding better alternatives to traditional graphite based anodes in Li-ion batteries that exhibit a limited capacity of ~370 mAh/g. Amorphous Si (a-Si) thin film have showed promise as the next-generation anodes for Li-ion batteries due to their high electrochemical capacity (~3600 mAh/g) [1]. However, the colossal volume expansion induced stresses leads to delamination of the thin film from underlying current collector rendering the anode non-functional. To suppress the thin film delamination, researchers have created patterned a-Si thin film anodes with width less than the average crack spacing observed in the continuous a-Si thin film anode. Another approach that has not received much attention is the multi-layered engineering of current collector. Datta et al. [2] have shown that insertion of soft layer of carbon between the Cu current collector and a-Si thin film improved the mechanical integrity and capacity retention of the electrode. Choi et al. [3] further demonstrated a current collector made by coating porous polyolefin polymer membrane with a thin layer of Cu. Polymer membrane has also shown to provide flexibility to the current collector, which assists the electrode performance by allowing it to freely expand and contract during electrode cycling. Thus, presence of soft elastic layer along with the current collector and Si thin film can enhance the anode system performance. However, detailed knowledge of the various mechanisms operative in the presence of soft elastic layer is still not very well understood. We have developed a multi-physics based finite element framework to study the influence of different design parameters on the mechanical integrity of patterned Si film based anodes [4]. This model will be utilized to predict the effect of insertion of the thin elastic buffer layer and other design parameters on the mechanical performance of the patterned anode under electrochemical cycling (Figure 1). The energies associated with the dissipative and non-dissipative processes will be quantified to explain the role of various mechanical events during electrochemical cycling. Qualitative comparison of the executed simulation studies with the experimental results will be made. Outcomes from this study are expected to aid in the fabrication of improved a-Si thin film patterned anodes.

High Energy Density Aqueous Metal Hydride-Air Batteries

Li-ion batteries exhibit poor abuse tolerance which necessitate complex charge management electronics, elaborate thermal management and adequate mechanical reinforcements, which result in reduced system-level energy densities and higher battery costs. These constraints make the aqueous systems more appealing, especially if their energy densities can be further improved. In this context, we are developing low cost and safe (aqueous) rechargeable metal-hydride / air batteries with high energy densities (200 Wh/kg and 400 Wh/l at cell level) and long cycle life for electric vehicle applications under an ARPA-E sponsored program. Our effort is focused on developing: i) new metal hydride alloys with higher hydrogen absorption capacities, ii) stable electro-catalysts for bifunctional oxygen electrode or suitable dual-electrodes for oxygen reduction/oxidation, iii) Stable hydroxyl membranes for improved cell durability and easier water management, and iv) New cathode designs with dispersed catalysts over nanostructured frameworks. For the metal hydride anodes, the desired performance parameters include: i) High hydrogen absorption of > 1.5 w% in the gas phase with low absorption pressures (below 2 bar) and desorption temperatures (ambient), ii) High electrochemical capacity of 400 mAh/g, iii) Low corrosion rate and long cycle life (> 1000 cycles) and iv) fast electrode kinetics to operate at > C/3 rate. We initially focused on AB5 alloys, supplied by BASF (e.g., La10.5Ce4.3Pr0.5Nd1.4Ni64.3Co5.0Al6.0Mn4.6Cu3.4)1 to establish the baseline for MH-air cells. In parallel, we have started developing metal hydride alloys of V-based BCC Alloys, specifically quaternary alloys of Ti-V-Ni-Cr, which reportedly have a maximum discharge capacity of 450 mAh/g with 90% capacity retention over 30 cycles.2 For the metal hydride air cells, we have been focusing on both the options of bifunctional air cathode as well as dual-electrode configuration, i.e., with an auxiliary electrode to support the oxygen evolution reaction (OER). Our initial studies for the bifunctional air cathode are based on thin-film noble metal catalysts, dispersed on nanostructures. For the dual electrode configuration, we are examining low-cost commercial electrodes based on manganese oxide catalysts for oxygen reduction, and Ni-based electrodes for OER. In either case, we have been able to demonstrate good cycling characteristics in laboratory MH-air test cells. In addition, we performed fundamental studies on the MH anodes as well as air cathodes, using the Differential Electrochemical Mass Spectroscopy (DEMS) technique (developed at Liox with swage-lock test cells coupled with mass spectrometer), to understand the gaseous environments within a MH-air cell. Young et al., J. of Alloys and Compounds 509 (2011) 4896.Inoue et al., Electrochimica Acta (2012), 59, 23-31

Surfactants assisted synthesis and electrochemical properties of nano-LiFePO4/C cathode materials for low temperature applications

Nano-LiFePO4/C cathode materials have been synthesized by a solid–state reaction method using Tween60-Span60 composite as surfactant and carbon source. The Tween60-Span60 composite surfactants together lead a strong space steric effect, which ensures a high surface energy and reaction kinetic of the precursors. Consequently, it contributes to the formation of uniformly distributed LiFePO4 particles coated with a thin layer of carbon. The unique structured LiFePO4/C cathode materials can deliver high electrochemical capacities of 166, 150.5 and 130.1 mAh g−1 under 0.1 C at 25, 0 and −20 °C, respectively. Moreover, the LiFePO4/C cathode materials demonstrate an excellent rate capability and cycle performance, no discernible specific discharge capacity fading has been observed after over 400 cycles under the rate of 0.1–5 C at 25 °C, or after over 100 cycles under the rate of 0.1–0.5 C at −20 °C.

In situ formation of graphene layers on graphite surfaces for efficient anodes of microbial fuel cells.

Graphene can be used to improve the performance of the anode in a microbial fuel cell (MFC) due to its good biocompatibility, high electrical conductivity and large surface area. However, the chemical production and modification of the graphene on the anode are environmentally hazardous because of the use of various harmful chemicals. This study reports a novel method based on the electrochemical exfoliation of a graphite plate (GP) for the in situ formation of graphene layers on the surface of a graphite electrode. When the resultant graphene-layer-based graphite plate electrode (GL/GP) was used as an anode in an MFC, a maximum power density of 0.67 ± 0.034 W/m(2) was achieved. This value corresponds to 1.72-, 1.56- and 1.26-times the maximum power densities of the original GP, exfoliated-graphene-modified GP (EG/GP) and chemically-reduced-graphene-modified GP (rGO/GP) anodes, respectively. Electrochemical measurements revealed that the high performance of the GL/GP anode was attributable to its macroporous structure, improved electron transfer and high electrochemical capacitance. The results demonstrated that the proposed method is a facile and environmentally friendly synthesis technique for the fabrication of high-performance graphene-based electrodes for use in microbial energy harvesting.

In-situ polymerization of polyaniline on the surface of graphene oxide for high electrochemical capacitance

Conducting polymer polyaniline (PANI) was in-situ polymerized on the surface of graphene oxide (GO) to form PANI encapsulating GO nanocomposites. The morphology and microstructure were examined by scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and N2 absorption/desorption analysis. Electrochemical properties were tested by cyclic voltammetry, galvanostatic charge/discharge cycles and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Experimental results showed that ethanol assisted the dispersion of GO in water and facilitated the diffusion of polymer monomers on GO. GO as a support material can provide sufficient reaction sites for the deposition of aniline to form the film-like GO/PANI composites. Capacitive performance illustrated that the in-situ polymerization of PANI on GO was effective in improving the specific capacitance and cycling stability.

One-step facile solvothermal synthesis of copper ferrite-graphene composite as a high-performance supercapacitor material.

In this work, we reported a facile approach to prepare a uniform copper ferrite nanoparticle-attached graphene nanosheet (CuFe2O4-GN). A one-step solvothermal method featuring the reduction of graphene oxide and formation of CuFe2O4 nanoparticles was efficient, scalable, green, and controllable. The composite nanosheet was fully characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), which demonstrated that CuFe2O4 nanoparticles with a diameter of approximately 100 nm were densely and compactly deposited on GN. To investigate the formation mechanism of CuFe2O4-GN, we discussed in detail the effects of a series of experimental parameters, including the concentrations of the precursor, precipitation agent, stabilizer agent, and graphene oxide on the size and morphology of the resulting products. Furthermore, the electrochemical properties of the CuFe2O4-GN composite were studied by cyclic voltammetry and galvanostatic charge-discharge measurements. The composite showed high electrochemical capacitance (576.6 F·g(-1) at 1 A·g(-1)), good rate performance, and cycling stability. These results demonstrated that the composite, as a kind of electrode materials, had a high specific capacitance and good retention. The versatile CuFe2O4-GN holds great promise for application in a wide range of electrochemical fields because of the remarkable synergistic effects between CuFe2O4 nanoparticles and graphene.

Promising gaseous and electrochemical hydrogen storage properties of porous Mg-Pd films under mild conditions.

In this paper, the gaseous and electrochemical hydrogen storage properties of 200 nm Mg-Pd thin films with different morphologies have been investigated. The results show that Mg-Pd films become porous with the increase of substrate temperature. Porous Mg-Pd films exhibit superior gaseous and electrochemical hydrogen storage behaviors under mild conditions, including rapid hydrogen sorption kinetics, a large hydrogen storage amount, high electrochemical discharge capacity, and a fast hydrogen diffusion rate. The excellent behaviors of porous Mg-Pd films might be ascribed to the significantly shortened hydrogen diffusion paths and the large contact areas between the hydrogen gas and the solid Mg phases, which are elucidative for the development and applications of thick Mg-Pd films.

High yield fabrication of hollow vesica-like silicon based on the Kirkendall effect and its application to energy storage

Recently, a unique process based on the Kirkendall effect was employed to generate hollow nanostructures with a wide variety of materials. However, a similar hollow structure of silicon based on the fabrication mechanism of the Kirkendall effect is still not proposed. Here, we provide an extensible synthesis method for the high yield fabrication of a uniform vesica-like hollow Si material from SiO2 based on the Kirkendall effect in a molten salt reduction process. Significantly, without further modification, the as-prepared hollow vesica-like Si exhibits a high electrochemical storage capacity and long cycling properties (∼712 mA h g(-1) at 0.36 A g(-1) over 200 cycles).

Fabrication of 3D core-shell multiwalled carbon nanotube@RuO2 lithium-ion battery electrodes through a RuO2 atomic layer deposition process.

Pushing lithium-ion battery (LIB) technology forward to its fundamental scaling limits requires the ability to create designer heterostructured materials and architectures. Atomic layer deposition (ALD) has recently been applied to advanced nanostructured energy storage devices due to the wide range of available materials, angstrom thickness control, and extreme conformality over high aspect ratio nanostructures. A class of materials referred to as conversion electrodes has recently been proposed as high capacity electrodes. RuO2 is considered an ideal conversion material due to its high combined electronic and ionic conductivity and high gravimetric capacity, and as such is an excellent material to explore the behavior of conversion electrodes at nanoscale thicknesses. We report here a fully characterized atomic layer deposition process for RuO2, electrochemical cycling data for ALD RuO2, and the application of the RuO2 to a composite carbon nanotube electrode scaffold with nucleation-controlled RuO2 growth. A growth rate of 0.4 Å/cycle is found between ∼ 210-240 °C. In a planar configuration, the resulting RuO2 films show high first cycle electrochemical capacities of ∼ 1400 mAh/g, but the capacity rapidly degrades with charge/discharge cycling. We also fabricated core/shell MWCNT/RuO2 heterostructured 3D electrodes, which show a 50× increase in the areal capacity over their planar counterparts, with an areal lithium capacity of 1.6 mAh/cm(2).

Polyaniline@MnO<sub>2</sub>/Graphene Oxide Ternary Composites for Electrochemical Supercapacitors

We introduced a facile method to construct new ternary hierarchical nanocomposites by combining MnO2coated one dimensional (1D) conducting polyaniline (PANI) nanowires with 2D graphene oxide sheets (GOs). The hierarchical nanocomposite structures of PANI@MnO2/Graphene oxide were further proved by XRD, SEM and TEM measurements. The ternary composites possessed higher electrochemical capacitance than each individual component as supercapacitor electrode materials.Such intriguing electrochemical performance is mainly attributed to the synergistic effects of MnO2, PANI and GOs. The hierarchical ternary nanocomposites show excellent electrochemical properties for energy storage applications, which evidence their potential application as supercapacitors.

Effects of Reductive Conditions on the Electrochemical Properties of LiFePO<sub>4</sub>/C Derived by Fe<sup>3+</sup> Sources

A one-step carbon thermal method was used to prepare LiFePO4/C particles by using normal Fe2O3, LiH2PO4and sucrose as raw materials. The effect of H2content in the sintering atmosphere of N2on the morphology and the electrochemical performance were investigated. LiFePO4/C materials were characterized by X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy and the elemental analyzer. The results show that the precursor sintering under the atmosphere of 8%H2+N2exhibits the highest electrochemical capacity (162.3 mAh/g at 0.1C) .

Fluorescent brightener CBS-X doped polypyrrole as smart electrode material for supercapacitors

Abstract Fluorescent polypyrrole nanospheres (PPy/CBS-X) with uniform diameter were synthesized via a chemical oxidation polymerization with fluorescent brightener, 2,2′-([1,1′-biphenyl]-4,4′-diyldi-2,1-ethenediyl)bis-benzenesulfonic acid disodium salt (CBS-X), as dopant. The sample S-2 containing 1 mol% CBS-X simultaneously exhibited the highest electrical conductivity of 31.3 S/cm and the largest specific area of 98.33 m2/g. When being used as electrode material for supercapacitors, it also possessed the high electrochemical specific capacitance (245.8 F/g) at a scan rate of 5 mV/s and the better rate capability and improved electrochemical stability than neutral (undoped) PPy, essentially attributed to a synergistic effect on the high doping level, large specific area and good π–π interactions from both PPy chains and CBS-X dopant. Most interestingly, the electrochemical activity of the fluorescent PPy/CBS-X could be easily monitored by photoluminescence. These features make the fluorescent polypyrrole nanospheres potential smart electrode material for high performance supercapacitors.

Microwave Synthesis of LiFePO4 from Iron Carbonyl Complex

Single mode microwave assisted synthesis of Lithium iron phosphate using iron carbonyl complex [Fe2(CO)9], as source of iron is reported in this paper. The suitable synthesis method for the LiFePO4 was designed based on FT-IR and TG-DTA studies of precursors. As prepared samples were characterized using different techniques such as X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscope, field emission scanning electron microscope, transmission electron microscope, thermo gravimetric analysis, Raman spectroscope and electrochemical measurements. X-ray diffraction revealed that a single phase LiFePO4 powder can be synthesized quickly and easily by microwave processing. The surface analysis of the as prepared samples reveal that, it consist of nano-size particles with porous agglomeration, where the pores serve as channel for lithium supply and assist for augmentation of the electrochemical character of the product. The initial discharge capacities are 154.2, 132.2 and 121mAhg−1 at 0.1C, 0.5C and1C rate respectively. The obtained LiFePO4 has a high electrochemical capacity and good cyclic ability even after 50 cycles, which is attributed to the smaller particle size, porous agglomeration and graphitic carbon content.

Production of Silicon Particles for High-Capacity Anode Material Yielding Outstanding Production Capacity

Silicon is proven to have a great potential as an anode material in lithium-ion batteries due to its high theoretical electrochemical capacity. The standard, commercial graphite anode has a theoretical capacity of less than 400 mAh/g, whereas the silicon anode can potentially deliver a tenfold capacity as a result of multiple Li-ion incorporation in the structure. However, silicon anodes deteriorate quickly during cyclic charging and discharging, rendering them useless in only a few cycles. This has been attributed to stresses induced by the large volume change of the material during cycling. The methods explored in order to overcome these problems such as using lithography, advanced nanotechnology, incorporation of silicon in carbon nanotubes or similar methods are too slow and too expensive for commercial use. This work presents results from using a silane-based decomposition reactor in order to produce silicon particles with a suitable nanostructure for use in lithium-ion battery anodes. The silane gas is decomposed in a controlled environment at a temperature of 500-600 °C. The current pilot reactor has demonstrated production of up to 350 g/hour in an easily up-scalable lab version. Particles of diameter ranging from 50 nm and up to 500 nm have been produced with relatively narrow size distribution. This method may produce both amorphous and crystalline particles and the surface of the particles can be terminated by hydrogen or other elements if desired.The silicon particles were mixed with an organic binder in an aqueous slurry and coated on a Cu-foil, The electrochemical performance was tested with CR-2032 coin cells. In the course of the presented work studies of cyclic voltammetry, cycling stability (Figure 1), voltage profiles and electrochemical impedance were performed. Besides electrochemical methods, SEM (Figure 2), XRD, ICP-MS and particle size distribution measurements were implemented. The silicon particles achieved a high capacity, relatively good stability, as well as a high yield and production capacity. Further developments on the silicon particles, such as doping of Si and in-line surface coating, are feasible.

Silicon Nitride Coated Silicon Thin Films As Anodes for Li-Ion Batteries

Silicon has proven to have a great potential as anode material in lithium-ion batteries due to its high theoretical electrochemical capacity. However, silicon anodes deteriorate quickly during cyclic charging and discharging, rendering them useless in only a few cycles [1]. This has been attributed to the stresses induced by the large volume change of the material during cycling. Numerous attempts have been made to reduce these stresses, e.g. by using nanoparticles, nanorods, nanowires, thin films and porous structures, with a varying degree of success [2, 3]. While using finely structured materials aids in the intercalation of lithium by reducing the necessary diffusion distance, it also has the unfortunate effect of greatly increasing the specific surface area of the silicon. When using nano-sized materials, silicon’s ability to form a thin and stable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) therefore becomes increasingly important. There are a number of factors that have a large influence on the SEI formation, making the process notoriously difficult to analyze, but also makes it possible to manipulate. Coating silicon with different nitrides and oxides, e.g. TiN and TiO, have previously been shown to enhance the cycling stability and Coulombic efficiency of the material [4, 5]. In this project the effect of coating the surface of silicon thin films with a thin (< 4-5 nm) layer of silicon nitride is investigated, as well as the effect of varying the stoichiometry of the silicon nitride. By itself silicon nitride has been shown to function as a conversion electrode material, forming elemental silicon and lithium nitride during the initial cycle, with thin films exhibiting capacities of up to 1800 mAh/g [6].40 nm silicon thin films were deposited by PECVD on copper foil using silane as precursor. The nitride was formed by addition of ammonia to the gas flow in the late stages of the deposition, and different stoichiometries were obtained by changing the ratio of these gases. By varying the flow rate of ammonia, coatings with four different compositions were made; pure silicon (A), stoichiometric Si3N4(D) and two intermediate compositions (B and C). Three electrodes were punched from each of the resulting films and mounted in coin cells with lithium metal counter electrodes and cycled at a current rate of C/3 for 150 cycles. During cycling, all the cells exhibited an initial increase in capacity, peaking at close-to-theoretical capacity within 10-40 cycles before beginning a slow decline. The average charge capacity for each series after 50, 100 and 150 cycles is presented in the figure, showing that the capacity retention increases with increasing nitrogen content for series A, B and C, and then decreases for series D. This indicates that a nitrogen coating has a positive effect on the deterioration mechanisms of the electrode, and that this effect increases with increasing nitrogen content of the coating, as long as a stoichiometric nitride is not formed.1. Kasavajjula, U., C. Wang, and A.J. Appleby, Nano-and bulk-silicon-based insertion anodes for lithium-ion secondary cells. Journal of Power Sources, 2007. 163(2): p. 1003-1039.2. Wu, H. and Y. Cui, Designing nanostructured Si anodes for high energy lithium ion batteries. Nano Today, 2012. 7(5): p. 414-429.3. Ge, M., et al., Scalable preparation of porous silicon nanoparticles and their application for lithium-ion battery anodes.Nano Research, 2013: p. 1-8.4. Memarzadeh Lotfabad, E., et al., ALD TiO2 coated silicon nanowires for lithium ion battery anodes with enhanced cycling stability and coulombic efficiency. Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP, 2013. 15(32): p. 13646-57.5. Kohandehghan, A., et al., Silicon nanowire lithium-ion battery anodes with ALD deposited TiN coatings demonstrate a major improvement in cycling performance. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 2013. 1(41): p. 12850-12861.6. Suzuki, N., et al., Silicon nitride thin film electrode for lithium-ion batteries. Journal of Power Sources, 2013. 231(0): p. 186-189.