High Dietary Restraint Research Articles

Postprandial peptide YY is lower in young college-aged women with high dietary cognitive restraint

Acylated ghrelin and peptide YY (PYY3–36) are involved in appetite-regulation and energy homeostasis. These gastrointestinal hormones provide peripheral signals to the central nervous system to regulate appetite and short term food intake, and interact with leptin and insulin to regulate energy balance. Dietary restraint is an eating behavior phenotype that manifests as a conscious cognitive control of food intake in order to achieve or sustain a desired body weight. The purpose of the current study was to determine if college-aged women (18 to 25years) with different eating behavior phenotypes, i.e., high vs normal dietary restraint, differ with respect to circulating concentrations of gastrointestinal hormones during and following a test meal. We hypothesized that women with high dietary cognitive restraint [High CR (score≥13, n=13)] would have elevated active ghrelin and PYY3–36 concentrations after a test meal compared to women with normal dietary cognitive restraint [Normal CR (score<13, n=30)]. Gastrointestinal hormones were assessed before (−15 and 0min) and after (10, 15, 20, 30, 60, 90, 120 and 180min) the consumption of a mixed composition meal (5.0kcal per kg/body weight). In contrast to our hypothesis, mean PYY3–36 concentrations (p=0.042), peak PYY3–36 concentrations (p=0.047), and PYY3–36 area under the curve (p=0.035) were lower in the High CR group compared to the Normal CR group after controlling for body mass index. No group differences were observed with respect to acylated ghrelin before or after the meal. In conclusion, PYY3–36 concentrations were suppressed in the women with High CR compared to the women with Normal CR. While the current study is cross-sectional and cause/effect of high dietary restraint and suppressed PYY3–36 concentrations cannot be determined, we speculate that these women with high cognitive restraint may be prone to weight gain or weight re-gain related to the suppressed circulating PYY after a meal. Further investigations need to explore the relationship between dietary cognitive restraint, circulating PYY, and weight gain.

Body Image and Modifiable Weight Control Behaviors Among Black Females: A Review of the Literature

Black women are at high risk for obesity and obesity-related health problems (1). Nearly 50% of black women compared to 30% of white women are obese (2,3). While many women who attempt to lose weight do so through caloric restriction and/or physical activity, smoking has been identified as an alternate strategy used for weight loss among black women with weight concerns or body image concerns (4). Nicotine’s suppression of body weight facilitates initiation and maintenance of smoking among women (5–7). Despite the deadly health risks associated with tobacco use, 23.1% of women smoke (8). Female smokers are more likely to report smoking cigarettes to control weight (6,9) and less likely to quit smoking due to weight concern (10). Perkins

The influence of eating rate on satiety and intake among participants exhibiting high dietary restraint

BackgroundStudies show inconsistent results with regards to whether eating slower can enhance satiety and reduce intake in a meal. Some methodological differences are apparent and could potentially explain why results are not consistent across studies.ObjectiveTo determine whether eating slower can enhance satiety and reduce intake when rate of eating is manipulated and not manipulated in a kitchen setting using a sample of participants who exhibit high dietary restraint (HDR).DesignTwo samples of college students who exhibit HDR, which is a group likely to use behavioral strategies to manage intake, were selected in a prescreening session. Participants were told how fast or slow to eat (Variation 1) or allowed to eat at their own pace (Variation 2). Self-reported satiety during the meal and amount consumed was recorded. The types of foods, macronutrient intakes, weights of foods, order of food intakes, and the dimensions of foods were held constant between groups to control for group differences in the sensory and hedonic qualities of the meals.ResultsEating slower enhanced mid-meal satiety ratings, but only when instructions were given to eat fast or slow (Variation 1). In both variations, eating slower did not reduce amount consumed in the meal, although each variation had sufficient power to detect differences.ConclusionEating slower is not likely to be an effective strategy to control intake in a meal among those exhibiting HDR.

How do life style factors relate to general health and overweight?

In this study we examined the associations between on the one hand the life style factors: Sports, Alcohol, Nutrition, Overweight and Smoking (SANOS), the eating styles of dietary restraint, external- and emotional eating and on the other hand overweight, energy at work and perceived general health. Using a web-based life style questionnaire, responses were obtained from 3272 employees (1254 women and 2018 men) in a large banking corporation. These data were subjected to principal component factor analysis. In both sexes, the SANOS life style factors loaded on a factor that stood for good general health and energy at work, and that, in women, additionally comprised high dietary restraint. Overweight, in contrast, loaded in both sexes on a factor that comprised: restrained eating, emotional eating (highest loading) and external eating, and, in the women, additionally general health (negative loading) and energy at work (negative loading). It is concluded that the attempt made in life style programs to elevate general health perception and lower body weight may be more successful for the latter if the program is also targeted at improvement of eating behavior.

Eating-Related Intrusive Thoughts Inventory: Exploring the Dimensionality of Eating Disorder Symptoms

The aims of this study were, first, to examine the structure and validity of the Eating-related Intrusive Thoughts Inventory (INPIAS), a self-report questionnaire designed to assess eating disorders related to intrusive thoughts (EDITs), and second, to explore the existence of a continuum ranging from normal to abnormal thought intrusions related to eating, weight, and shape. Participants were 574 (408 women) nonclinical community individuals. Analyses revealed that EDITs can be clustered into three sets: appearance-dieting, need to exercise, and thoughts-impulses related to eating disorders. EDITs' consequences showed a two-factor structure: emotional consequences/personal meaning and thought-action fusion responsibility; and four factors of strategies: "anxiety," suppression, obsessive-compulsive rituals, and distraction. The sample was then divided according to reported restrained eating. The High dietary restraint group reported a higher frequency of EDITs, whereas differences in the other factors were mediated by depression, anxiety, and obsessionality. The results suggest that eating disorder-related cognitions are experienced by nonclinical individuals, and distributed on a continuum.

Appearance investment in Australian brides-to-be

The present study examined the appearance concerns of 440 engaged women recruited from bridal websites across Australia. Participants completed a short online questionnaire incorporating measures of appearance investment, dietary restraint, and their pre-wedding beauty preparation plans. Overall, brides-to-be reported similar levels of both facets of appearance investment (self-evaluative salience and motivational salience) to normative samples. High appearance investment and dietary restraint were significantly related to a greater number of pre-wedding beauty, diet, and exercise regimes. Furthermore, pre-wedding plans were predicted differently by the two facets of appearance investment. Specifically, self-evaluative salience predicted wedding weight discrepancy, while motivational salience was a significant predictor of both appearance-related and exercise/eating behaviors. Results indicate that reducing the focus on appearance surrounding weddings and promoting a healthier bridal weight ideal may be useful in discouraging harmful appearance altering behaviors and attitudes (e.g., tanning, surgery, desire to lose weight) among women with high appearance investment.

Weight, gender, and snack appeal

In this study, we hypothesized that overweight/obese persons have an exaggerated approach tendency toward high calorie foods. Testing this hypothesis, a stimulus response compatibility (SRC) task was used to assess approach-avoidance tendencies toward food in both overweight/obese participants ( n = 42), and normal weight controls ( n = 46). The SRC task is a reaction time task measuring how fast one approaches and avoids pictures of food and non-foods according to given instructions. It was found that overweight/obese men are slower at avoiding particularly high calorie snack foods. But this does not appear to be the case for overweight/obese women who showed nearly as fast avoidance as approach toward the high calorie food cues. It is concluded that overweight/obese women, rather than men, are ambivalent toward high calorie foods, which is the likely result of high dietary restraint.

Relation of dietary restraint scores to activation of reward-related brain regions in response to food intake, anticipated intake, and food pictures

Prospective studies indicate that individuals with elevated dietary restraint scores are at increased risk for future bulimic symptom onset, suggesting that these individuals may show hyper-responsivity of reward regions to food and food cues. Thus, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine the relation of dietary restraint scores to activation of reward-related brain regions in response to receipt and anticipated receipt of chocolate milkshake and exposure to pictures of appetizing foods in 39 female adolescents (mean age=15.5±0.94). Dietary restraint scores were positively correlated with activation in the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) in response to milkshake receipt. However, dietary restraint scores did not correlate with activation in response to anticipated milkshake receipt or exposure to food pictures. Results indicate that individuals who report high dietary restraint have a hyper-responsivity in reward-related brain regions when food intake is occurring, which may increase risk for overeating and binge eating.

Influence of Physical Activity Participation on the Associations between Eating Behaviour Traits and Body Mass Index in Healthy Postmenopausal Women

Available data reveals inconsistent relationships between eating behaviour traits and markers of adiposity level. It is thus relevant to investigate whether other factors also need to be considered when interpreting the relationship between eating behaviour traits and adiposity. The objective of this cross-sectional study was thus to examine whether the associations between variables of the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ) and adiposity are influenced by the level of physical activity participation. Information from the TFEQ and physical activity was obtained from 113 postmenopausal women (56.7 ± 4.2 years; 28.5 ± 5.9 kg/m2). BMI was compared between four groups formed on the basis of the physical activity participation and eating behaviour traits medians. In groups of women with higher physical activity participation, BMI was significantly lower in women who presented higher dietary restraint when compared to women who had lower dietary restraint (25.5 ± 0.5 versus 30.3 ± 1.7 kg/m2, P < .05). In addition, among women with lower physical activity participation, BMI was significantly lower in women presenting a lower external hunger than in those with a higher external hunger (27.5 ± 0.8 versus 32.4 ± 1.1 kg/m2, P < .001). Our results suggest that physical activity participation should also be taken into account when interpreting the relationship between adiposity and eating behaviour traits.

Risk Factors for Adult Overweight and Obesity in the Quebec Family Study: Have We Been Barking Up the Wrong Tree?

The aim of this study was to determine the independent contribution of previously reported risk factors for adult overweight and obesity. A cross-sectional (n=537) and a longitudinal (n=283; 6-year follow-up period) analysis was performed for nine risk factors for overweight and obesity assessed in adult participants (aged 18-64 years) of the Quebec Family Study (QFS). The main outcome measure was overweight/obesity, defined as a BMI>or=25 kg/m2. Using logistic regression analysis adjusted for age, sex, and socioeconomic status, short sleep duration, high disinhibition eating behavior, low dietary calcium intake, high susceptibility to hunger behavior, nonparticipation in high-intensity physical exercise, high dietary restraint behavior, nonconsumption of multivitamin and dietary supplements, high dietary lipid intake, and high alcohol intake were all significantly associated with overweight and obesity in the cross-sectional sample. The analysis of covariance adjusted for age, socioeconomic status, and all other risk factors revealed that only individuals characterized by short sleep duration, high disinhibition eating behavior, and low dietary calcium intake had significantly higher BMI compared to the reference category in both sexes. Over the 6-year follow-up period, short-duration sleepers, low calcium consumers, and those with a high disinhibition and restraint eating behavior score were significantly more likely to gain weight and develop obesity. These results show that excess body weight or weight gain results from a number of obesogenic behaviors that have received considerable attention over the past decade. They also indicate that the four factors, which have the best predictive potential of variations in BMI, be it in a cross-sectional or a longitudinal analytical design, do not have a "caloric value" per se.

Dietary Restraint Influences Accuracies in Estimating Energy Expenditure and Energy Intake Among Physically Inactive Males

Inaccurate estimations of energy intake (EI) and energy expenditure (EE) may ultimately affect body weight. The purpose of this study was to evaluate accuracy of estimated EI and EE among males in reference to exercise and rest using a counterbalanced, crossover, repeated-measures design. Participants (N = 80) were recruited from a large, urban university in South Florida. Exercise consisted of walking on a treadmill for 60 min at 65% age-predicted maximum heart rate. Food intake was evaluated immediately following exercise and rest. Participants underestimated EI (kcal) on both the exercise (M = 435, SEM = 69) and rest days (M = 439, SEM = 54), overestimated EE (kcal) for exercise (M = 129, SEM = 44), and underestimated EE for rest (M = 54, SEM = 10). Greater accuracy in estimating EE for exercise was significantly (p < .05) associated with higher dietary restraint. The findings suggest that among sedentary males, there is an inability to accurately estimate calories, which has the potential to influence behaviors that affect weight management.

The moderation of pessimistic judgments associated with high and low dietary Restraint

This study investigated the moderation of pessimistic judgments associated with high and low levels of dietary restraint using the Consider-An-Alternative debiasing procedure. Caucasian female participants were randomly assigned to either a control or debiasing group in a mixed factorial repeated measure designed experiment. The participants read and made probability ratings as to the likelihood of future negative eating-related events. The results showed that the debiasing procedure was effective in the reduction of pessimistic judgmental predictions for low restraint participants only. The results were discussed in terms of the debiasing technique and how it may serve to reduce pessimistic judgments. Finally, a potential for application in psychotherapy and cognitive models of psychopathology was emphasized.

Dietary restraint moderates the effects of food exposure on women's body and weight satisfaction

The influence of dietary restraint and food exposure on body satisfaction was tested. Body and weight satisfaction were measured before and after exposure to either high- or low-caloric food, without actual eating. Independent of caloric condition, higher dietary restraint was associated with a decrease in body satisfaction after food exposure. With regard to weight satisfaction, however, the association between higher dietary restraint and decreased weight satisfaction was specific for the high-caloric condition. Thus, the actual eating of food is not necessary for decreased body and weight satisfaction to occur, suggesting an exposure-induced activation of dysfunctional cognitions in restrained eaters.

Cognitive dietary restraint: Impact on bone, menstrual and metabolic status in young women

We compared bone mineral density (BMD) and content (BMC), menstrual and metabolic status between physically active women with 1) high cognitive dietary restraint (High-CDR) (score ≥ 9, n = 38) and Normal-CDR (score < 9, n = 46) and 2) across quartiles of CDR scores. Eighty-four physically active (500 ± 35 min wk − 1 ) premenopausal women participated and were categorized according to their CDR score. Primary outcomes included, BMD, BMC, menstrual status, estrone-3-glucuronide (E1G) and pregnanediol-3-glucuronide (PdG) area under the curve (AUC). Secondary outcomes included resting energy expenditure (REE), total triiodothyronine, and ghrelin. Measures of body mass (59.2 ± 1.1 vs. 58.5 ± 1.0 kg) and percent body fat (24.7 ± 1.2 vs. 23.7 ± 0.7%) were similar between women with Normal-CDR and High-CDR, however the High-CDR group had lower total body (1.140 ± 0.011 vs. 1.179 ± 0.010 g cm − 2 ; p = 0.015) and lumbar spine (1.114 ±0.019 vs. 1.223 ± 0.022 g cm − 2 ; p = 0.001) BMD. The prevalence of oligo-amenorrhea was higher in the High-CDR group and became increasingly greater across the CDR quartiles. There were no differences in metabolic characteristics between the High-CDR and Normal-CDR groups, however REE and the ratio of measured to predicted REE were lower in the fourth quartile (CDR scores ≥ 13) compared to the second and third quartiles. Our results provide evidence that high CDR scores are associated with reduced lumbar spine and total body BMD in physically active premenopausal women. A greater frequency of menstrual disturbances in women with higher CDR scores likely played a role in the reduced total body and lumbar spine BMD.

Low fasting PYY3-36 levels in healthy women with high dietary restraint.

The gastrointestinal hormones ghrelin and PYY3-36 are released peripherally and act on the central nervous system to signal hunger and satiety, respectively. Atypical levels of Ghrelin and PYY3-36 have been reported in obesity and in those with clinically disordered eating, and may contribute to the types of eating behaviours seen in these pathologies. However, a causal relationship cannot be inferred. In this study, we examined fasting PYY3-36 and Ghrelin levels in healthy normal weight non-eating-disordered women grouped by differences in eating behaviors, categorized using Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ) scores of dietary restraint and disinhibition. Differences in fasting plasma levels of ghrelin, PYY3-36, leptin and glucose were contrasted between 60 healthy women classified as either low or high TFEQ-restraint (LR vs. HR) and with low or high TFEQ-disinhibition (LD vs. HD). All blood sampling took place in the morning following an overnight fast. Blood plasma samples were frozen to −70 °C and later analyzed using Radioimmunoassay methods. Controlling for BMI, HR women had similar fasting levels of ghrelin, leptin and glucose compared to LR women, but significantly lower fasting levels of PYY3-36 [ F (1, 58)=8.4, p =0.005]. There were no TFEQ-disinhibition effects or TFEQ-restraint×TFEQ-disinhibition interactions. Healthy women with high dietary restraint have low fasting levels of the satiety GI hormone PYY3-36, and potential reasons for this finding are discussed.

Dietary-restraint status-modulated satiety responses in women.

Dietary restraint, a measure of the conscious control a person exerts over their eating to control body weight, has been associated with altered satiety responses. We report results showing that women with high dietary restraint exhibited aberrant satiety responses in two laboratory-based studies. In one study, we tested the effects of a proprietary, gel-forming drink, ingested twice per day, on food intake. In the second, we tested the effects of two daily doses (10 g) of encapsulated l -phenylalanine (Phe) on food intake. Overweight and obese women (total n =61) with a range of dietary restraint scores (2 – 20) were tested. Significant interactions of dietary-restraint and condition were found in both studies. The effects were especially pronounced when subjects were classified on the basis of rigid restraint, a subscale of the dietary-restraint measure defined by a more rigid approach to controlling food intake. Women with low rigid restraint scores consumed 12% less energy over the day in response to consumption of the gel-fiber beverage versus an equicaloric, low-fiber control. Similarly, in the second experiment, women with low rigid scores consumed 11% less daily energy with ingestion of Phe versus an equicaloric control. No effect of condition (fiber or Phe) was found for women classified as high in rigid restraint. These experiments provide further evidence that high dietary restraint is associated with altered satiety responses and suggest that restricting food intake may have untoward consequences for appetite regulation. Supported by McNeil Nutritionals, LLC.

Health Versus Weight As Motivations For Physical Activity Among Adolescent Girls Have Different Antecedents And Consequences

PURPOSE: To examine predictors and consequences of weight-related and health and well-being related motivations for physical activity (PA) among adolescent girls. METHODS: Data were collected from a longitudinal sample of 142 girls at ages 9, 11, and 13 years. Weight-related and health and well-being related motivations for PA were assessed at age 11 using the Activity Motivations Scale. Predictors of activity motivations assessed at age 9 included dietary restraint, maternal influence on weight concerns and maternal influence on PA. Body Mass Index (BMI) z-score and socioeconomic status (SES) were assessed as covariates. Outcome variables assessed at age 13 included enjoyment of PA and objectively-measured moderate to vigorous PA (MVPA). ReSUlT S: Higher weight-related activity motivation at age 11 was predicted by higher BMI, higher dietary restraint and higher maternal influence on weight concerns at age 9. Weight-related activity motivation was in turn linked with lower enjoyment of PA at age 13, which was correlated with lower MVPA. In contrast, girls with higher health and well-being related activity motivation at age 11 reported higher maternal influence on PA at age 9; no effects were noted for dietary restraint and maternal influence on weight concerns. Health and well-being motivation was in turn associated with higher enjoyment of PA at age 13. All results were independent of family SES. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that girls have different motivations for being physically active, each of which has different predictors and consequences. Weight-related activity motivation reflects a history of restraint and maternal influence on weight concerns and has negative effects on girls' enjoyment of PA. In contrast, health and well-being related motivation reflects a history of parental support of physical activity and is linked with higher enjoyment of PA. Intervention programs should avoid using weight-loss as a motivation for physical activity and focus instead on health and well-being. Supported by NIH Grant RO1 HD046567 and RO1 HD32973 and MO1 RR10732 ©2007The American College of Sports Medicine

HIGH COGNITIVE DIETARY RESTRAINT IS ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED CORTISOL EXCRETION IN POSTMENOPAUSAL WOMEN: A COMMENT

To the Editor: I read with great interest the paper of Rideout and colleagues (1) who claimed that ‘‘our finding of higher cortisol excretion in postmenopausal women with high cognitive dietary restraint suggests that high dietary restraint may be a source of stress for generally healthy, normal-weight postmenopausal women’’ (p. 631). A shortcoming may confound their work, making the interpretation of their endocrine results difficult, if not impossible. The shortcoming is: The authors measured urinary ‘‘cortisol’’ (probably: urinary free ‘‘cortisol’’) by a competitive chemiluminescent immunoassay (Bayer ADVIA Centaur) that lacks specificity. Gray and colleagues (2) had evaluated this immunoassay and compared their values of urinary free cortisol (UFF) with those obtained by a specific gas chromatography–mass spectrometry method. They observed that cortisone, a major metabolite of UFF in the urine, demonstrated a crossreactivity of 44%, and they concluded that this method overestimates urinary cortisol, giving results up to twice those obtained by a specific gas chromatography–mass spectrometry method. Thus, we may assume that Rideout

Can Regular Professional Massage Improve Nutritional Status and Reduce Perceived Stress in Healthy Adults?: The Massage Therapy and Health Pilot Study.

Anxiety, or perceived stress, may lead to obesity and chronic disease via behavioral, hormonal, and metabolic effects. Massage Therapy (MT) may help reduce anxiety and depression (Moyer et al 2004) and aid sleep in hospitalized patients (Richards et al 2003). Although MT is used by 5% of US adults (Barnes et al 2004), little research has been done on the heath effects of MT. Nonsmokers (n=38; aged 36.3±8.6 y (SD)) participating in ongoing studies of diet and obesity in our laboratory and recruited from local massage businesses were asked about MT use and grouped according to MT use history. In those who received MT ≥ 1 time/mo for the past 6 mo (regular MT, or RMT users (n=9)), MT frequency and years of use were 1.9±1.3 times/mo and 4.9±7.1 y, respectively. In analyses controlled for confounders, RMT users tended to have a lower BMI (23.5±1.5 vs 26.3±0.8 kg/m2 (SEM); p=0.106), and had higher carbohydrate (51±3 vs 45±1 %kcal; p=0.04) and sugar (23±2 vs 18±1 %kcal; p=0.02) intakes, higher dietary restraint (10.6±1.1 vs 7.9±0.6; p=0.04), and higher state and trait anxiety scores (e.g. state anxiety 49.7±1.8 vs 45.4±0.9; p=0.04) compared to those not receiving RMT. Among all MT users (current + past), state anxiety (r=−0.50; p=0.085) tended to be inversely associated with years of MT use. These preliminary data suggest that MT may help reduce perceived stress in individuals with high anxiety. [Funded by NCCAM 5T32AT00815 and DK062400]

Determinants of overweight in a cohort of Dutch children

To improve the effective prevention and treatment of obesity, it is important to focus on body weight (BW) development and its determinants during childhood. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of early development, parental and genetic variables, and behavioral determinants on overweight at 12 y. In a Dutch cohort of 105 children, anthropometric measurements were conducted from birth until age 7 y. At age 12 y, anthropometric measurements were obtained again, as were measurements of body composition, leptin concentration, 3 polymorphisms, and physical activity, and the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire was conducted. In addition, parental body mass indexes (BMIs, in kg/m2) and Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire scores were determined. The children's mean (+/-SD) BMI at 12 y was 19.0 +/- 2.6, and 15.2% were classified as overweight. From the first year of life, BMI tracked significantly with BMI at age 12 y (r = 0.24, P < 0.05). Linear regression analyses showed that a rapid increase in BW during the first year of life, a high BMI of the father, and a high dietary restraint score of the mother were significantly associated with overweight at age 12 y (P < 0.05). No significant genetic relation was observed. In addition, overweight was positively associated with dietary restraint of the child, and percentage body fat was negatively associated with the child's activity score (P < 0.05). In this homogeneous cohort of normal-weight to moderately overweight children, tracking of BMI during childhood took place from the first year of life. Overweight at age 12 y was predicted by an early rapid increase in BW and parental influences. Overweight during childhood may be maintained or even promoted by a high dietary restraint score and low physical activity.