High-density Housing Development Research Articles

Strategic easing of height restrictions: Unveiling the intersection of free market principles and colonial mentality in Hong Kong’s urban densification

ABSTRACT High-density housing development is considered a pragmatic response to the conflicts between land scarcity and population growth. Under the rhetoric of (neo)liberalism, the flourishing private housing market narrative was anchored throughout the last century, along with significant contributions from government regulations. The 1955 Buildings Ordinance, which eased height limits, laid the groundwork for Hong Kong’s high-density foundations. The existing historiographical literature examines this from a technical perspective. However, it overlooks the decision-making processes behind these regulations and their alignment with or deviation from free market principles. This study examines colonial archives to scrutinize the colonial government’s approach to building regulations, revealing that easing height restrictions was not merely a technical adjustment but a calculated response to broader economic and demographic challenges. It was a strategy to stimulate private housing development and manage population growth without significantly increasing government spending. This raises concerns regarding prevailing assumptions that the colonial government supported a free-market approach to housing rather than exploring the debates and deliberations that shaped these policies. By comparing colonial experiences in Hong Kong and London, historical analysis challenges the conventional understanding of Hong Kong’s urban development, thereby highlighting the contentious relationship between liberal economic policies and the colonial administrative framework.

GEOECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS UPON IMPROVEMENT OF HISTORIC CITIES AND PRESERVATION OF HISTORIC URBAN HERITAGE

In spite of the fact that almost everywhere in the territories of historic cities, under the influence of the shortcomings of landscaping, there is a progressive technogenesis of the geological environment and groundwater, which can lead to the destruction of architectural monuments and historically valuable buildings, this problem remains poorly studied. Given the enormous scale of work on the improvement of the historical territories, which is planned to perform under the national projects and municipal programs, the study of this direction to improve the design methodology and engineering surveys as an objective basis for the development of design decisions, is very relevant. For the historical territories of cities that include architectural monuments and valuable buildings, specialized methods of design and engineering and environmental surveys, geoecological monitoring, including measures to ensure the preservation of cultural heritage, are necessary. The article provides a review of literary sources, analysis of examples, and actual data confirming the impact of landscaping factors on the state of cultural heritage sites (CHS). The most significant in terms of the impact on the geological environment and, accordingly, on the preservation of monuments of architecture are the shortcomings of vertical planning and drainage. In the conditions of high-density housing development, the unsatisfactory improvement can stimulate the processes of underflooding, suffosion, and karst, as well as the general technogenesis of soils, and loss of the bearing capacity of the bases and foundations. Underflooding of basements, “soaking” of walls, and formation of cracks on facades can be observed in architectural monuments and historical buildings. The study summarizes the observations and results obtained by the authors – representatives of various specialties (engineers, geologist, architect-restorer) at various stages of their creative work and takes into account the long experience of OOO “IGBI” on the design of improvement on the historical territories of Moscow.

Air Quality and Key Variables in High-Density Housing

The high-rise and high-density housing development in nearby industry relocations is a general urban sprawl phenomenon in fast-growing cities in Southern China. Aside from the low price, the improved air quality in the suburban area is always a reason for home buyers, but the consistent monitoring of air quality and knowledge about how to plan housing estates are lacking. This paper investigates the relationship between the housing morphology and the air quality in three housing estates in Shenzhen. This research utilizes on-site monitoring equipment to examine negative air ions (NAIs) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation to examine the air flow. This study reveals the effect of the urban form on the concentration of NAIs and PM2.5 in spatial variation. A correlation study between the configuration variables of the urban form and the CFD air flow pattern helps to identify the key variables influencing the air quality. This study concludes that in housing estates with good air quality of surroundings, the building density has no remarkable effect. However, the footprint of buildings, the layout of podiums, the roughness length of the building, the distance between buildings, the open space aspect ratio and the mean building height may have a remarkable impact on the air flow and quality. These findings may encourage high-density housing development and provide planning guidance for the configuration of housing forms in Southern China and subtropical climate regions around the world.

A conceptual model identifying apartment owners' attitude formation towards solar photovoltaic (PV) adoption

PurposeThis paper addresses the current lack of solar photovoltaic (PV) adoption by Australian apartment dwellers by proposing a conceptual model that identifies and integrates the factors influencing owners' attitudes towards PV adoption.Design/methodology/approachThe conceptual model, which this paper terms the apartment-based solar adoption (ASA) model, is developed by applying motivation–opportunity–ability (MOA) theory to relevant findings in property development, green energy and strata governance literature.FindingsThe ASA model demonstrates the process by which an apartment-owning consumer may progress from considering solar PV adoption to recommending the action to their strata property's Owners' Committee (OC). It incorporates three motivational drivers (pragmatic considerations, perceived values and perceived social norms), three conditional mediators (location accessibility, resource availability and decision-making conditions) and three requirements from the consumer (actual and perceived knowledge, the ability to participate in decision-making and social connections and status).Research limitations/implicationsThis article contributes originality to research on two counts. Firstly, it provides a conceptual framework of specific relevance to issues concerning solar PV adoption, and secondly, it offers a systematic means for research into strata governance decision-making. Further research is required to develop the means with which to utilise the model prescriptively and measure longitudinal effects, such as ongoing trends in apartment owners' motivations. Further research is also recommended into how the ASA model may be utilised to identify generalisable consumer typologies among apartment owners.Practical implicationsThe ASA model may assist building maintenance providers in developing and marketing solar PV services tailored to apartment residents' requirements and enhance strata managers' ability to inform and guide apartment owners. In turn, property developers would be able to review apartment-based solar projects, measure their increased value and decreased energy costs and incorporate this information when planning future developments.Social implicationsThe ASA model may provide a template for apartment owners and owners' corporations considering solar PV for their property. Public policymakers could also refer to the model to incentivise apartment-based solar PV adoption, whether through designing local information campaigns, developing financial incentives or mitigating identified regulatory barriers. By facilitating solar PV adoption in Australian apartment housing, the model may ensure sustainable post-carbon energy consumption for Australia's housing stock and act as an example for high-density housing development internationally.Originality/valueThe ASA model addresses the many drivers and barriers known to affect solar PV adoption by apartment owners, presenting a framework on which to arrange these factors and outline their causal relationships. This framework may inform strata properties' future solar PV adoption initiatives by incorporating their specific physical characteristics, stakeholder dynamics and institutional structure. It also consolidates and provides generalisability to the concepts established in current literature.

Road-crossings, vegetative cover, land use and poisons interact to influence corridor effectiveness

Landscape connectivity is essential to conserving resilient wildlife populations in the Anthropocene. Maintaining connectivity requires preserving or restoring patches of habitat, accounting for the behavioral factors that determine movement between patches and mitigating threats. We measured natural and anthropogenic features that influence movement and mortality for bobcats (Lynx rufus) in a system threatened with complete isolation by urbanization. Our overarching objective was to inform local land acquisition and restoration to maintain two last-chance wildlife corridors. We collected five-minute movement data from 36 bobcats in central California to assess features of road-crossing hotspots and model habitat selection, including functional responses to housing densities and vegetation. We collected opportunistic mortalities and assessed rat poison exposure to evaluate edge effects as acute threats. Bobcats strongly selected for natural vegetation, evident at the level of a single tree or shrub. Individuals selected low-density housing (<5 houses/ha) yet avoided high-density housing development and monoculture agriculture. Narrow (<25 m wide) riparian strips were critical to connectivity. Bobcats successfully crossed the busiest highway in the landscape but frequently died when crossing a less-trafficked road with a high median barrier. Vehicles and disease were dominant sources of mortality, while 94% of bobcats were exposed to rat poisons despite California's 2014 regulations implemented to reduced wildlife exposure. Maintaining landscape connectivity requires conserving key habitats, mitigating the effects of infrastructure, and sustaining populations of highly mobile, healthy individuals. Our findings have driven conservation action through land acquisition. We demonstrate how robust, rapid data collection can facilitate real-world conservation outcomes.

Life in London’s changing densities

ABSTRACT Despite reaching ever higher densities, London’s new residential blocks and towers are evermore exclusive and unaffordable. The current market-led era of high-density housing development contrasts acutely with that of the postwar era, geared around the mass provision of council homes. These changing densities are often discussed at the city level, but there has been little research capturing residents’ perspectives. This paper aims to draw parallels between the politics and the experience of density using a recent study focusing on the residents of high-density housing in London. It seeks to demonstrate how consequences of structural shifts – a growing separation between tenures, increasing numbers of transient residents and the escalating role of international finance – impact day-to-day life within these buildings. In so doing, it advocates shifting the prevailing focus on density as a numbers game to considering the issues associated with changing social densities – particularly the inequalities within and between them.

Stream salamander persistence influenced by the interaction between exurban housing age and development

Exurban development is the fastest growing form of land use in the United States and already predominates southern New England. These housing developments alter stream ecosystems in a predictable manner described as urban stream syndrome. Yet, many stream salamanders are considered ubiquitous in the region. To determine what stream and watershed features enhance long-term population persistence in an exurban landscape, we compared the occupancy and abundance of two stream salamanders, Eurycea bislineata (northern two-lined salamander) and Desmognathus fuscus (northern dusky salamander), in watersheds that differed in housing density and time since construction. We estimated E. bislineata occupancy at 100% and found strong support for an interaction between the quadratic of average housing development age and housing density in watersheds influencing abundance. Abundance was sensitive to new and high-density housing developments and increased in watersheds that were more than 20 years post-construction when housing density was low. In comparison, D. fuscus occupancy was estimated at 18% and best explained by fine-scale stream features including soil temperature, water conductivity, dissolved oxygen, discharge, and sediment distribution. Notably, estimates of D. fuscus relative abundance within watersheds, including watersheds with low housing densities, were much lower than comparable estimates in the literature. We suggest an adaptive management approach to monitor and manage D. fuscus populations in the region. Future wildlife management decisions in exurban landscapes should consider interactions between housing age and density as well as development legacy effects.

서울, 자카르타, 마닐라, 방콕 대도시권의 도시확산 비교 분석

This study starts from the issue that the urbanization in developing countries has accelerated urban sprawl through Western-style low-density residential development represented by single-family detached housing. It therefore aims to empirically verify that Korean-style high-density residential development characterized by multi-family housing (‘apartment’), by contrast, has contributed to compact urban development, restricting urban sprawl. International comparison among Seoul, Jakarta, Manila, and Bangkok metropolitan regions shows that the Seoul metropolitan region has the highest proportion of the population living in the central region, compared with the peripheral region. By estimating population density functions, it further demonstrates that the Seoul metropolitan region has the largest gradient, which means the steepest decrease in population density as the distance from the metropolitan center increases. These results confirm that the Seoul metropolitan region is characterized by the most compact urban development owing to the high-density housing development, while the metropolitan regions in the Southeast Asia, particularly Manila and Bangkok metropolitan regions, suffer from the sprawled urban development pattern coupled with the low-density housing development.

Problems of Space Shaping in the Surroundings of Former Manors as Presented on Selected Examples in Cracow (Poland)

Inner city development structure of large cities is greatly diverse regarding form, functions, and historical and cultural values held. Dominance of high-density housing development and absence of non-developed areas of large surface results in the fact that in these regions the existing public and green spaces become particularly valuable. The considered areas require protection against further, chaotic development. In inner city development we may distinguish a particular type of buildings that represents valuable cultural, historical, and architectural values - a manor. Manors are associated with residential development, located among green areas. The development of cities resulted in the surroundings of manors located near city centres were subject to significant transformations. A question arises, how does the surrounding space impact on the value of these objects. The paper presents studies on the method of land development of areas surrounding old manor buildings in Cracow’s city-centre development area in the context of shaping public spaces. The analyses stress the quality of surroundings in the vicinity of former manor developments. The purpose of studies is to indicate a method of shaping public spaces around former manors in Cracow and to recognize conflicts present within these areas. In result, the assessment of the impact of spaces on the perception of historic manors in the city space was conducted. The article shows examples of spaces surrounding three old, historic manors in Cracow, Hunter’s Manor House in VII district Zwierzyniec, “Kossakówka” Manor and Park Complex in I district the Old Town, and former manor at Jana Zamoyskiego Street in XIII district Podgórze. Areas surrounding the manors, in particular public spaces, such town squares, were subjected to functional, composition and aesthetic analysis. Based on conducted analyses, their strengths and weaknesses were established. The conclusions show issues regarding the areas neighbouring the selected historic manors in Cracow, while attempting to indicate possible actions that could improve the quality of these spaces.

Pocket Park – A New Type of Green Public Space in Kraków (Poland)

Public space, including green areas are particularly important for the quality of life in the city. The influence of greenery can be considered in regard to natural, social, and economic assets. Such spaces improve the city climate quality, they can create areas of social activity, and above all they serve as a space for leisure and recreation. The same natural environment brings benefits to the city, referred to as ecosystem services, which can be converted into monetary value. Therefore, protection of existing green spaces and their restoration is an important element of sustainable urban development. At the same time in large cities, in which dominates high-density housing development, the issue of ensuring proper availability of green spaces arises. In the recent years in Poland various activities are being undertaken to improve the value of an index showing the surface of public green spaces per one inhabitant of the city. The surface of green public spaces of recreational function in Kraków is 618,48 ha (based on “The direction of the green areas development and management in Kraków for 2017 - 2030” – project, p. 151), which in per capita corresponds to about 8 m2. In the last years, the city has been undertaking activities aiming at increasing the availability of public green spaces to the residents. For this purpose, the city initiated the realisation of an idea of creating small green spaces, called pocket parks, based on American and European solutions. The paper presents research on pocket parks as a new form of public green spaces in Kraków. The purpose of the research is to indicate rules regarding the method of development of small parks within selected American and Polish realisations, and to indicate optimal solutions for future implementation. The paper presents general principles of the idea of creating pocket parks. Two Kraków realisations of pocket parks are described: park in Zwierzyniec district, at the junction of Bolesław Prus and Julian Fałat Streets, and “Ogród Motyli” park, located at Dekerta Street in XIII Podgórze district. The above realisations are compared to the selected American pocket parks - Paley Park and John F. Collins Park. The analysis provides similarities and differences between the concept of pocket parks in Kraków and in the United States of America. As a result, the paper presents the benefits of creating small public green spaces in the context of the sustainable development of Kraków and the possibilities of applying solutions following the example of American cities.

Green space: A Luxury or a Necessity? Green Spaces in Condominium Sites in Sri Lanka

Green spaces in cities have a positive impact on the health of the urban population. They decrease urban heat Island effects. Hence, green and open space should not be considered a luxury but an integral part of urban planning. However, the green spaces in Colombo city, Sri Lanka are declining at a rapid rate. Therefore this study investigates the reasons behind the decline of green space and high density housing developments in Colombo. Considered as a “green space” if the land cover has vegetation, the study found that 90% of small condominium developments (number of units ranging from 15 to 65) and 50% of large condominium developments (over 65 units) had less than 1% of green space on site. The reason for lack of green space was found to be high plot coverage, high FAR, small site extent and the absence of landscape, communal space and green buffer requirements in the current planning and building regulations for condominium developments.

High-Density Housing Development and Water Infrastructure Provision: Empirical Evidence From Korea

This paper investigates the relationship between housing development density and the level of water supply and sewerage in Korea in an attempt to draw implications for housing and water infrastructure development in developing countries. It first examines theoretically the relationship between housing development density and economic efficiency for providing water infrastructure. This relationship is then empirically tested using multiple regression models based on the cross-sectional data across local jurisdictions in Korea. The water supply and sewerage levels are two dependent variables and measured by the percentage of the population connected to the water supply and sewage treatment systems in each jurisdiction. Housing development density, measured by the proportion of apartments out of housing stock, serves as the key independent variable along with other control variables such as the environmental, financial, and urban characteristics of each jurisdiction. The regression results reveal that housing development density plays a dominant role in enhancing both water supply and sewerage levels, implying that densification strategies in urban and residential development may be useful in overcoming a shortage of housing and water infrastructure in developing countries.

Environmental situation in construction, reconstruction and re-profiling of facilities in high-density urban development

The article studies a set of potential impacts of construction on the environment in the conditions of high-density housing development: the existing buildings, ecological state of water, ground, air and natural components, and the residents of adjacent territories. Given the absence of a compulsory legislative basis regulating the permissibility and limit values of these impacts, the authors propose a comprehensive assessment of the organizational and technological tool that would help reduce the hazardous impact of new construction. Authors have analyzed the foreign experience in improving the environmental safety and comfort in the construction sector and considered the possibility of widespread implementation of certification systems based on local law, which would allow for the problem of the construction impact on the ecological situation to be solved system-wide.

한국과 홍콩의 공동주택 친환경 인증제도의 비교분석 연구

In line with the recent public concern on the environmental issues in building industry, there has been a rise in demand for a healthy, sustainable housing environment in South Korea. In order to achieve a healthy environment in residential buildings, considerable efforts have been made in a wide range of sectors. Among others, the development of the certification schemes to promote environment-friendly planning and building construction is remarkable. In urban South Korea, recently built houses tend to be significantly high-rise, high-density buildings. Global warming has brought about drastic climate change and continued to increase the average annual temperature year by year. These changes should be well reflected on the government's implementation of the building environmental assessment system. For guidance, therefore, this study looks to the case of Hong Kong which is well known for high-density housing development and subtropical climate conditions. It compares the features of the green building certification schemes for newly developed multifamily housing in two regions, namely HK-BEAM in Hong Kong and G-SEED in South Korea. Based on the findings, it argues that the G-SEED implementor should have expanded roles in providing training programs and follow-up services in collaboration with the certification authorities. It is also argued that G-SEED professionals should be involved in the early stages of design processes, and training programs and licence systems to produce green building professionals should be developed. Finally, it points out that the assessment indicators should be more detailed and diversified.

Urbanization impacts on mammals across urban-forest edges and a predictive model of edge effects.

With accelerating rates of urbanization worldwide, a better understanding of ecological processes at the wildland-urban interface is critical to conserve biodiversity. We explored the effects of high and low-density housing developments on forest-dwelling mammals. Based on habitat characteristics, we expected a gradual decline in species abundance across forest-urban edges and an increased decline rate in higher contrast edges. We surveyed arboreal mammals in sites of high and low housing density along 600 m transects that spanned urban areas and areas turn on adjacent native forest. We also surveyed forest controls to test whether edge effects extended beyond our edge transects. We fitted models describing richness, total abundance and individual species abundance. Low-density housing developments provided suitable habitat for most arboreal mammals. In contrast, high-density housing developments had lower species richness, total abundance and individual species abundance, but supported the highest abundances of an urban adapter (Trichosurus vulpecula). We did not find the predicted gradual decline in species abundance. Of four species analysed, three exhibited no response to the proximity of urban boundaries, but spilled over into adjacent urban habitat to differing extents. One species (Petaurus australis) had an extended negative response to urban boundaries, suggesting that urban development has impacts beyond 300 m into adjacent forest. Our empirical work demonstrates that high-density housing developments have negative effects on both community and species level responses, except for one urban adapter. We developed a new predictive model of edge effects based on our results and the literature. To predict animal responses across edges, our framework integrates for first time: (1) habitat quality/preference, (2) species response with the proximity to the adjacent habitat, and (3) spillover extent/sensitivity to adjacent habitat boundaries. This framework will allow scientists, managers and planners better understand and predict both species responses across edges and impacts of development in mosaic landscapes.

Vertical cities as a solution for land scarcity: the tallest public housing development in Singapore

Singapore, whose land area is approximately 660 km2, is one of the most densely populated cities in the world. In the 2001 Concept Plan, the Urban Redevelopment Authority estimated that Singapore would need 800000 more homes or 6400 ha of land to cater to a projected population of 5.5 million. Considering other competing demands for land resources, the 2001 Concept Plan has suggested constructing taller buildings. Thus, in August 2001, the Housing and Development Board initiated the development of a new 50-storeys public housing design. The 50-storeys public housing development, which comprises about 2000 dwellings, is the first of its kind in Singapore. This paper provides an insight into the potential residents’ perception, attitudes, concerns and acceptability of such a high-rise high-density housing development that has features that are similar to a vertical city. Findings reveal that despite being accustomed to decades of high-rise living, less than half of the Singaporean population would choose to live in such dwellings. Younger and smaller households, as well as males tend to be more receptive towards this new housing form. The main attractions of such high-rise housing developments are the scenic view and windy environment in contrast to major concerns such as pricing, safety of the building structure, insufficient provision of facilities as well as traffic congestion. The findings have important implications for policy-makers, especially in congested cities where land is a major constraint, and the only way to build is upwards.

Optimal site area for high-density housing development

This study provides an empirical assessment of the optimal site area for master-planned high-density housing development in Hong Kong. Conventional hedonic pricing methods are not used because they cannot separate the amenity value of large sites from the price effects caused by market power. We obtain our estimate from a unique data set containing the choice of applicants for public housing units in 128 housing estates in Hong Kong between 1990 and 1998. An inverted U-shaped relationship between site area and popularity of the estate is revealed. We conclude that the land areas of most public housing estates in Hong Kong are sub-optimal. Our estimated optimal site area serves as a quantitative benchmark for the government in its future disposal of public as well as private housing land.