High-conflict Areas Research Articles

Predicting Potential Conflict Areas of the Malayan Sun Bear (Helarctos malayanus) in Peninsular Malaysia Using Maximum Entropy Model

Human-sun bear conflict may negatively affect human properties and long-term survival of the sun bear. These conflicts become a major problem for conservation of the sun bear. Understanding what factors cause human-bear conflict remains poorly understood. Studies of conflict extent through identifying affected areas while accessing their level of risk are a prelude to reduce wildlife conflict issues. In this research, the Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) algorithm was applied to predict potential conflict areas of the Malayan sun bear (Helarctos malayanus) in Peninsular Malaysia and identify the key factors shaping conflict distribution. The 233 spatially disperse conflicted sun bears were analysed in relation to 11 predictor variables. The risk model demonstrated that approximately 1% of Peninsular Malaysia was comprised of high potential conflict area, while good, moderate, and least potential conflict areas constituted 2%, 5%, and 25%, respectively. The predictive model with an AUC value of 0.92 indicated that the crop areas adjacent to the forest edge and with high precipitation were significantly influenced on sun bear conflicts. This study provides useful tools for identifying potential conflict hotspots and highlights the significance of proper landscape planning to improve the mitigation of human-sun bear conflict and conservation efforts throughout Peninsular Malaysia.

A Conflict Identification Method of Urban, Agricultural and Ecological Spaces Based on the Space Conversion Matrix

In China, disordered development and utilization of land space usually lead to serious conflicts between urban, agricultural, and ecological spaces. The identification of these conflicts is an important basis for scientific zoning of the three types of spaces and has important theoretical and practical significance for the sustainable use of land space. In this study, a conflict identification method based on the space conversion matrix is proposed to provide a reference for scientific zoning of urban, agricultural, and ecological spaces. The method constructs several land space change indices, including overall conflict degree, type stability degree, and type conflict degree, to evaluate and identify the overall conflict degree, main functions, and main conflict types of evaluation units, respectively. This study used Hubei Province in China as an example to verify the method. Results showed that the main types of land space conflicts in Hubei Province in 2010–2016 were the occupations of agricultural space by urban space and ecological space by agricultural space. Moreover, high conflict areas were mainly concentrated in the central and eastern plains, especially the urban areas of prefectural-level cities. By comparing data between 2010–2013 and 2013–2016, the two major conflict types showed weakening and fragmenting trends. The land space conflict identification method proposed in this study demonstrates several advantages over previous methods. These advantages include the ability to evaluate conflict degree and identify conflict types simultaneously, the low requirement of data condition, and simple and intuitive representation of identification results.

Size, shape and maintenance matter: A critical appraisal of a global carnivore conflict mitigation strategy – Livestock protection kraals in northern Botswana

Fortified kraals are predator-proof enclosures designed to protect livestock at night. Globally, they show great promise in reducing depredation by carnivores, thus promoting co-existence with people. Their efficacy depends on effectiveness, durability, regular use, owner satisfaction, cost-efficiency, and design. We monitored 32 fortified kraals for 18 months in a high conflict area in northern Botswana (n = 427 kraal months) where lions (Panthera leo) frequently kill cattle. Monthly kraal use was 60% and was significantly influenced by kraal type, age, and shape. When used and maintained, kraals stopped livestock depredation. Due to poor maintenance, however, kraal age had a significant, negative influence on kraal use and effectiveness, compromising sustainability and cost-effectiveness. Fortified kraals built by a non-governmental organisation cost US$1322.36 per unit (n = 20) and mitigated a mean annual loss of $187.32. This suggests cost-recuperation after 7.0 years, or 2.3 times longer than observed kraal lifetime. Conversely, owner-built replicates cost $579.90 per unit (n = 4), recuperating investment after 3.1 years. Owner satisfaction was significantly higher for fortified kraals when compared with traditional kraals. However, owners of fortified kraals did not kraal their cattle more frequently than owners of traditional kraals. Regionally, the mean annual kraaling rate for 29 GPS-monitored cattle herds (n = 3360 nights) was 40%, leaving cattle vulnerable to depredation, and highlighting the importance of promoting vigilant herding together with kraaling to prevent losses. This combination could reduce regional livestock losses by 80%, or >$38,000 annually, however, kraal fortification alone does not provide a blanket solution to carnivore conflicts in Africa's agro-pastoral landscapes.

Vulnerability of Arctic marine mammals to vessel traffic in the increasingly ice-free Northwest Passage and Northern Sea Route

The fabled Northwest Passage and Northern Sea Route that were once the quests of early Western explorers are now increasingly sea ice-free, with routine vessel transits expected by midcentury. The potential impacts of this novel vessel traffic on endemic Arctic marine mammal (AMM) species are unknown despite their critical social and ecological roles in the ecosystem and widely recognized susceptibility to ice loss. We developed a vulnerability assessment of 80 subpopulations of seven AMM species to vessel traffic during the ice-free season. Vulnerability scores were based on the combined influence of spatially explicit exposure to the sea routes and a suite of sensitivity variables. More than half of AMM subpopulations (42/80) are exposed to open-water vessel transits in the Arctic sea routes. Narwhals (Monodon monoceros) were estimated to be most vulnerable to vessel impacts, given their high exposure and sensitivity, and polar bears (Ursus maritimus) were estimated to be the least vulnerable because of their low exposure and sensitivity. Regions with geographic bottlenecks, such as the Bering Strait and eastern Canadian Arctic, were characterized by two to three times higher vulnerability than more remote regions. These pinch points are obligatory pathways for both vessels and migratory AMMs, and so represent potentially high conflict areas but also opportunities for conservation-informed planning. Some of the species and regions identified as least vulnerable were also characterized by high uncertainty, highlighting additional data and monitoring needs. Our quantification of the heterogeneity of risk across AMM species provides a necessary first step toward developing best practices for maritime industries poised to advance into this rapidly changing seascape.

<b>Livestock and wild herbivores in the western Himalaya: competition or co-existence?</b>

Pastoralism is among the major land use practices in the Himalaya and the main source of livelihood for local communities. In naturally occurring herbivore populations, the co-occurrence of native species has evolved through evolutionary processes over millions of years which has enabled coexistence. In the modern scenario, however, the intrusion of livestock into the wild habitats impose additional pressure on the limited resources, given that there has been insufficient time for resource partitioning to evolve. Realizing the need to develop a better understanding of wild herbivores and livestock interactions, the present review was compiled. The review demonstrates that a group of similar species using similar habitats and feeding on similar foods leads to more competition. Also, goat/sheep impose a potential threat to the resource of wild herbivores and such resource exploitation by livestock is not compatible with their conservation. Further, wild herbivores shift their habitat to avoid the risk of being exposed to competition or predation. Livestock grazing and associated activities affect the wild herbivores’ habitat use and foraging behaviour, and these are changes that may also affect their survival in the future. There is a prime need to find out the threshold of livestock population which can sustain itself without compromising livestock production and wildlife. High conflict areas need to be identified and compensatory mechanisms should evolve. It is also necessary for ecology to be integrated with an understanding of the social dynamics that influence the status of the resources.

Below knee long stump guillotine amputation for mine blast injury foot: a safe need to do primary management in war zone: an experience in 18 cases over 10 months

Background:Somewhere in western sector, high intensity conflict zone, we had to manage a large number of battle causalities, especially gunshot wound abdomen, and mine blast injury foot. In our collective experience of working in battle strife- zone, we realized that the best and the least a surgical team can do is to execute an old fashioned ‘long stump’ below knee (BK) guillotine amputation, achieve perfect hemostasis, immobilize the limb and rapidly transport the patient to higher surgical centre. This increase in the magnitude of mine blast injuries prompted us to highlight the problem and its management.Methods: We analyzed 18 cases of anti- personnel mine blast injury foot over a 10 months period 2000 to 2001. We have managed 18 mine blast feet in “staged- manner. Stage I- “on battle-field” long stump BK guillotine amputation, perfect hemostasis, wound toileting and stump immobilization. Stage II - at a higher surgical centre elsewhere, the patient underwent a planned BK, prosthetic compatible, posterior myo-cutaneous flap covered stump construction and stage III - On recovery the patient with healed BK stump was transferred to limb prosthesis centre where tailor made BK prosthesis was provided and patient rehabilitated.Results:Various body regions were involved in the mine blast injuries, but the main brunt was borne by feet and legs followed by multiple body regions due to splinters. 18 patients underwent below knee (BK) amputation while 01patient required bilateral BK amputations. The initial aggressive BK Guillotine amputation saved the limb and life of all patients. Few had stump related self-limiting complications. Some had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Almost all of them had high degree of BK prosthesis acceptance.Conclusions:Mine blast causes extensive injuries and psychological trauma. Management is needed urgently, surgery is difficult, and amputation is often inevitable. In our experience on 18 cases this “safe-need-to-do” staged management of mine blast injury foot, in high conflict area, was found to be least time consuming, less precious resource draining and hardly manpower straining strategy.

Private Military and Security Labour Migration: The Case of Fiji

Private military and security companies (PMSCs) are a fast-growing global industry. While the rise of PMSCs and their activities have attracted much media coverage and growing scholarly attention, little is known about their sourcing of masses of military labour from the global South. This exploratory study examines the case of Fiji, whose thousands of ex/current disciplinary force personnel and unemployed men have been contracted by PMSCs to provide security work in Iraq and other high-conflict areas. The article shows this to be an instance of unequal core-periphery military labour trade, outlining its scale, processes and impacts on the migrants. It also illuminates how the migrants’ collective agency is demonstrated even under powerful structural constraints.

Child Discipline in Times of Conflict

Using a unique pairing of household survey data and geolocational conflict data, we investigate the relationship between local conflict intensity and the disciplinary methods employed by Iraqi households. We find that parents in high-conflict areas are more likely to use both moderate and severe corporal punishment, and are less likely to use constructive parenting techniques like redirection. While there is a general sense that war has profound long-term impacts on the psychological health of children, research on transmission mechanisms is very limited. These are among the first results that rigorously document an association between violent conflict and child maltreatment and, to our knowledge, the first that document changes in child discipline practices even across a mainstream parenting spectrum. Given the persistence of early childhood outcomes into adulthood, these results are potentially an important piece of assessing and mitigating the long-term costs of war on the civilian population.

Trauma exposure and posttraumatic symptoms in Iraqi police recruits

ABSTRACTWhen civilians exposed to high levels of traumatic stress take on security roles, posttraumatic symptoms may affect their work functioning and vulnerability to the severe stress of security work. We aimed to investigate levels of trauma exposure and posttraumatic symptoms in police recruits from a high-conflict area (Iraq) relative to police from a culturally similar, low-conflict area (Jordan). Iraqi police recruits reported significantly higher levels of trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and dissociative symptoms than Jordanian police. Iraqi recruits and Jordanian police both reported high levels of current life stress. Among Iraqi police recruits, trauma exposure and current life stress were both significantly related to PTSD and dissociation symptoms. Results indicate that those in training for security positions in high violence areas should be screened for posttraumatic stress symptoms and provided appropriate support and mental health care.

Threats to polio eradication in high-conflict areas in Pakistan and Nigeria: a polling study of caregivers of children younger than 5 years

Elimination of poliovirus from endemic countries is a crucial step in eradication; however, vaccination programmes in these areas face challenges, especially in regions with conflict. We analysed interviews with caregivers of children living in two polio-endemic countries to assess whether these challenges are largely operational or also driven by resistance or misinformation in the community. We designed and analysed polls based on face-to-face interviews of a random sample of parents and other caregivers of children younger than 5 years in regions of Pakistan and Nigeria at high risk for polio transmission. In both countries, the sample was drawn via a stratified multistage cluster design with random route household selection. The questionnaire covered awareness, knowledge, and attitudes about polio and oral polio vaccine (OPV), trust in vaccination efforts, and caregiver priorities for government action. We assessed experiences of caregivers in accessible higher-conflict areas and compared their knowledge and attitudes with those in lower-conflict areas. Differences were tested with two-sample t tests. The poll consisted of 3396 caregivers from Pakistan and 2629 from Nigeria. About a third of caregivers who responded in higher-conflict areas of Pakistan (Federally Administered Tribal Areas [FATA], 30%) and Nigeria (Borno, 33%) were unable to confirm that their child was vaccinated in the previous campaign. In FATA, 12% of caregivers reported that they were unaware of polio, and in Borno 12% of caregivers reported that vaccinators visited but their child did not receive the vaccine or they did not know whether the child was vaccinated. Additionally, caregivers in higher-conflict areas are less likely to hold beliefs about OPV that could motivate acceptance and are more likely to hold concerns than are caregivers in lower-conflict areas. Beyond the difficulties in reaching homes with OPV, challenges for vaccination programmes in higher-conflict areas extend to limited awareness, negative attitudes, and gaps in trust. Vaccination efforts might need to address underlying attitudes of caregivers through direct communications and the selection and training of local vaccinators. Harvard T H Chan School of Public Health and UNICEF.

A GIS-based methodology for identifying sustainability conflict areas in mine design – a case study from a surface coal mine in the USA

Through proper design, coal mining operations can contribute to the social, economic and environmental aspects of sustainable development. The regulatory and permitting programmes for coal mining in the United States, which often focus on several largely environmental parameters, are barriers to holistic consideration of these three sustainability pillars. Some changes in the current US regulatory framework may be necessary to allow for systematic consideration of economic, environmental and social factors in order to achieve more sustainable development of mineral and energy resources. In the quest towards more sustainable mining activities, it has been suggested that mine design may be optimised in the context of sustainability using a systems engineering approach that simultaneously considers economic, environmental and social factors. The use of geographic information system (GIS) tools may aid in this approach by allowing for spatial analyses of various resources (e.g. mineral values, water resources, community infrastructure) and identification of potential areas of conflict between these factors. By GIS analysis of the on-the-ground issues related to sustainability, the key parameters to be considered in decision-making were identified. This type of analysis is crucial not only for regulatory compliance, but also to ensure that the operation has obtained the ‘social licence’ to mine. To demonstrate this approach, a case study was conducted on a mountaintop coal mining operation in central Appalachia. High-conflict areas were found to be primarily concentrated near streams and residential developments through the use of GIS. The case study suggests that use of this approach could have allowed for better communications and planning. The controversies surrounding permitting at the site, including litigation, could have also been avoided. Adoption of such a process could assist in the transition to a new regulatory framework that promotes and is based on sustainable development principles.

Landscape Modeling for Human – Sulawesi Crested Black Macaques Conflict in North Sulawesi

The main threat to the survival of Sulawesi Crested Black Macaques (SCBM) Macaca nigra in North Sulawesi is habitat destruction caused by land use change and illegal hunting. This threat has been escalated human – SCBM conflict such as crop-raiding. This study aimed to develop the probability of human - SCBM conflict model in North Sulawesi and to analyze the causes of conflict. This study was conducted in Tangkoko-Batuangus and Duasodara Nature Reserve. Main methodologies were combination between GIS modeling technique and binary logistic regression in order to obtain spatial model of probability human - SCBM conflict. The results showed the high, medium, and low probability conflict areas were covering 2008.5ha (17.05%), 3621.7ha (30.76%) and 6143.9ha (52.18%), respectively. Environmental variables that affected the conflict were elevation of 400-800 m and natural forests. These variables were related to the main characteristic of the high intensity of human and SCMB daily activities areas.

Role of Expectancy, Motion and Overhead Lighting on Nighttime Visibility

More than half of the pedestrian fatalities occur at night. It is important to understand the factors that lead to pedestrian detection for designing and implementing effective countermeasures in order to reduce pedes-trian fatalities. Research has shown that expectancy, motion and overhead lighting affect pedestrian visibil-ity. This goal of this study is to understand the combined effect of these three factors on nighttime visibil-ity. Twenty four participants were recruited to drive on a test track under different conditions of expectancy and overhead lighting. The participants were asked to identify static and moving objects. The results showed that as the level of expectancy increases the detection distances also increase. Moving objects were detected from farther than static objects and presence of overhead lighting also increased the detection dis-tances. Motion tends to draw more attention than expectancy when detecting new objects. These results have implications in the areas of pedestrian safety, novice driver training and work zone safety. They also reiterate the safety benefits of providing overhead lighting at high pedestrian-vehicle conflict areas.

The Panopticon of International Law: Human Rights Compliance in a Transnational Society

This paper analyzes the influence of transnational actors on compliance with international legal rules, as part of Foucault’s power/knowledge structure. Particularly it examines the effect of the “Shooting Back” project, by the Israeli NGO B’Tselem, on the level of investigations of alleged violations of the law of occupation. According to Bentham’s principles of Panoptism, power should be visible and unverifiable. Transnational actors, through their geographical spread and their civilian activists, conjointly with their use of cheap and available means of communication provide both. The implementation of these principles is well presented by the “Shooting Back” project. In 2007 B’Tselem supplied Palestinians living in high-conflict areas with video-cameras in order to capture, expose, and “seek redress for” human rights violations in the Occupied Territories. This project caused soldiers and their commanders to be aware of the possibility that they are observed and documented, without knowing the exact source of the observer.

Consensus on Criteria for Potential Areas for Wolf Reintroduction in Mexico

Given the conflict with human interests that in many cases results in the extirpation of large carnivores, acceptance of their reintroduction is a considerable challenge. By the 1980s Mexican wolves (Canis lupus) were extinct in the wild. In 1998 a population was reintroduced in the Blue Range Mountains of New Mexico (U.S.A.). Efforts to reintroduce the species in Mexico have been ongoing since the late 1980s. Four teams working independently identified 6 areas in northern Mexico in the historic range of Mexican wolves, where reintroductions could potentially be successful. Each team used different methods and criteria to identify the areas, which makes it difficult to prioritize among these areas. Therefore, members of the different teams worked together to devise criteria for use in identifying priority areas. They identified areas with high, intermediate, and low potential levels of conflict between wolves and humans. Areas with low potential conflict had larger buffers (i.e., distance from human settlement to areas suitable for wolves) around human settlements than high- and intermediate-conflict areas and thus were thought most appropriate for the first reintroduction. High-conflict areas contained habitat associated with wolf presence, but were closer to human activity. The first reintroduction of Mexican wolves to Mexico occurred in October 2011 in one of the identified low-conflict areas. The identification of suitable areas for reintroduction represents a crucial step in the process toward the restoration of large carnivores. Choice of the first reintroduction area can determine whether the reintroduction is successful or fails. A failure may preclude future reintroduction efforts in a region or country.

Land use and Behavioral Patterns of Brown Bears in the South-Eastern Romanian Carpathian Mountains: A Case Study of Relocated and Rehabilitated Individuals

Abstract Although brown bears are not drastically threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation at the present, the socioeconomic development in Romania is proceeding rapidly and already came along with noticeable changes in landscape. Human-bear conflicts though exist for decades, requiring proper management and related research findings. We analyzed the habitat use on landscape level of 8 GPS-collared bears between 2008 and 2011. According to the type of human intervention we grouped our study animals into four classes: (1) non-relocated, nonrehabilitated; (2) relocated, non-rehabilitated; (3) non-relocated, rehabilitated; (4) relocated, rehabilitated. We tried to respond if bear types exhibit varied responses to landscape level habitat use by examining home range sizes and occurrence in the proximity of human settlements, defined as High Potential Conflict Areas (HPCA). We tested the effect of age and sex on presence versus absence and on the time spent in this buffer area. Home rang sizes calculated with the minimum convex polygon varied substantially among bears and types but less for the 95% kernel estimators. Between 50.9% and 94.7% of all bear locations were in forest areas and shrubland. Agricultural fields were frequented moderately, urban areas were practically avoided. But bear presence remarkably increased within the HPCA, in bear type 1 up to 70%. There was no significant difference between relocated and rehabilitated bears (type 2 and 3), both being more present outside the buffer area. Bears of type 4 behaved wary and approached urban areas less frequently. Females tend to stay further away from human activities, whereas males did not have a special preference. Adults frequented more often and remained longer inside the buffer zone than subadults, which were four rehabilitated animals out of total five.

Asiatic black bear–human interactions around Dachigam National Park, Kashmir, India

We assessed patterns of Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus)–human interactions in the peripheral areas of the Dachigam landscape (∼1,000 km2) that encompass Dachigam National Park, Over-Aru Wildlife Sanctuary, and 8 conservation reserves, in Kashmir, India, based on semi-structured interviews with villagers living near the protected areas during 2007–09. We recorded considerable overlap in resource use by bears and humans in this landscape: 72% of villagers interviewed (n = 227) claimed that they depended on forest resources in bear habitats, and 85% reported crop depredation by black bears. The 3 types of bear–human interactions recorded in Dachigam landscape were crop depredation, bear attacks on humans, and livestock depredation. Of these, crop damage (85%) was most common, which occurred during May–December and peaked in summer (Jun–Sep), when bears were active and crop production was at its highest. We recorded 19 cases of attacks on humans; all occurred during May–November with the maximum cases at crepuscular times (59%), in crop fields (63%), and in summer (52%). Livestock depredations were less common than other categories of bear–human interactions; 7 cases were recorded, mostly during winter. Based on our observations, we suggest strengthening indigenous crop protection methods, improving livestock night shelters, and monitoring high conflict areas by strengthened management teams. These measures have improved management of problem bears and have led to gains in local community support for bear conservation in other areas with black bear–human interactions.

Understanding Variations in Local Conflict: Evidence and Implications from Indonesia

Recent studies of large-scale headline conflicts have excluded consideration of local conflict, in large part due to the absence of representative data at low levels of geographic specification. This paper is a first attempt to correct for that by assessing the incidence, impacts, and patterns of local conflict in Indonesia. We employ a combination of qualitative fieldwork with an exploratory statistical analysis of the 2003 Village Potential Statistics collected by the Bureau of Statistics (Potensi Desa-PODES), which maps conflict across all of Indonesia's villages/neighborhoods. Violent conflict can be observed throughout the archipelago. The qualitative analysis shows that local conflicts vary in form and impacts across districts, and that local factors are key. The quantitative analysis, which excludes high conflict areas of Indonesia, confirms the importance of economic factors, with positive correlations between violent conflict and poverty, inequality, and variables measuring economic development. Clustering of ethnic groups and ill-defined property rights were also positively associated with violence.

Non-Lethal Management to Reduce Conflicts with Winter Urban Crow Roosts in New York: 2002 - 2007

American crow populations have increased steadily since 1966 in many parts of the U.S. Large winter congregations of crows in urban environments have resulted in an increased number of requests for assistance in managing nocturnal roosts in New York. In 2002, the USDA APHIS Wildlife Services program initiated a large-scale non-lethal winter roost dispersal program in Troy, New York. Since that time, similar programs have been implemented in 4 other cities in New York to manage crow roosts ranging in size from 8,000 - 63,000 individuals. The goals of the programs were to minimize noise, accumulations of crow feces around residences, strong odors associated with droppings, property damage, clean-up costs, and potential threats to human health and safety. The primary management strategy relied on dispersing concentrated crow populations from high-impact high-conflict areas, to low-impact low-conflict areas. An integrated management program using pyrotechnics, amplified recorded crow distress calls, and hand-held lasers was implemented to successfully disperse local crow roosts, reducing populations at the majority of core roost sites each year by more than 98%. In some instances, significant reductions in crow numbers and associated damage persisted >8 weeks after management without additional interventions, although most sites required multiple additional “spot treatments.” High-profile urban wildlife management projects of this type require multiple meetings with key stakeholders and the public and often attract intense media interest, adding complexity to these programs. We provide summary information from 5 cities in New York documenting crow management techniques, intensity of effort, number of interventions required to relocate crow populations, and key lessons learned regarding sciencebased project documentation, project transparency, communication, and the need for long-term adaptive management strategies to meet project goals.

Understanding and Managing Conflict in Transportation Project Public Involvement

The purpose of this project is to understand why public involvement in transportation project planning sometimes fails to reach a resolution that is acceptable to both the agency and the public and to determine how the process could be modified to reduce the likelihood of this outcome. A case study of a very complex and ultimately unsuccessful public involvement effort is described. This is used as the primary data source for development of a prototype of a general model of conflict management. It is concluded that there are a small number of independent dimensions around which conflict can arise and that some projects by their nature have a higher level of potential for conflict around one or more of these dimensions. The conclusion is that each of these dimensions needs to be analyzed and the likely level of conflict identified before the public involvement process begins and that the process should be explicitly structured to focus on addressing and resolving the high-conflict areas first. How public involvement efforts can be modified to better manage specific types of conflict and achieve mutually acceptable results is also described.