High Suspended Sediment Concentration Research Articles

Conversion between suspended sediment concentration and turbidity of summer surface water in Zhejiang offshore area

Zhejiang offshore area exhibits great spatial variation and is impacted by the huge amount of sediment input into the sea from the Yangtze River. Based on simultaneous water filtration measurements and observations using an optical backscatter sensor (OBS) and conductance-temperature-depth (CTD) deployed during the summer in 2022 in this area, the relationships between the suspended sediment concentration (SSC) and water turbidity (WT) and the factors affecting the conversion were investigated. The results showed that the SSC and WT of the surface water were significantly positively correlated in general (the Pearson correlation coefficient of this relationship was 0.9409) and could decrease by more than 100 times from north to south in this area. Therefore, three subareas were classified and their conversion relationships were established based on the results of linear regression analysis. The influencing factors and application scope of these relationships were investigated, which revealed that the water salinity and suspended particle grain size had negative correlations with both the SSC and WT, and fine suspended particles tended to correspond to high SSC and WT values. The conversion relationship was more accurate when the SST and WT were in appropriate ranges. A very large concentration of suspended sediments and abundant biomass impacted the SSC and WT correlations in these regions. By extrapolating the difficult-to-access SSC from easily accessible WT data, this study can be applied to practical ocean exploitation such as sediment management and water quality monitoring in this area.

Suspended sediment (SPS) triggers nitrogen retention by altering microbial network stability and electron transport behavior during the aerobic-anoxic transition.

NO3--N transformation, the vital biological process, determines nitrogen removal and retention in aquatic environment. Suspended sediment (SPS) ubiquitous in freshwater ecosystems can accelerate the transitions from aerobic to anoxic states, inevitably impacting NO3--N transformation. To elaborate on the microbial mechanism by which SPS content affected NO3--N transformation, we explored nitrogen removal and retention, microbial communities, co-occurrence networks, and electron transfer behavior under different SPS content during the aerobic-anoxic transition. We found that higher SPS concentration obviously increased NO3--N transformation rates but slightly affected TN removal, as the optimal SPS concentration boosting dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA) helped retain nitrogen during the transition. Microbial analysis suggested that the up-regulated SPS content slightly affected dominant bacteria abundance while progressively enhancing the essentiality of deterministic selection in microbial assembly and making microbial network more stable. Further investigations indicated that SPS content indirectly affected nitrogen retention via altering microbial network stability and electron transport system activity (ETSA) rather than bacterial abundance. Notably, elevating ETSA caused by SPS content directly promoted the potential for NO3--N being transformed through DNRA, enhancing nitrogen accumulation during the aerobic-anoxic transition. These results would provide supporting theories for the ecological restoration of micro-polluted water with higher SPS content.

Water Column Nitrogen Removal During Storms in a Low‐Order Watershed

AbstractWater column removal in streams is a nitrogen (N) cycling pathway that has been historically overlooked. Studies filling this knowledge gap have focused on the role of water column N removal in mid‐to‐large‐order rivers with consistently high suspended sediment concentrations. However, smaller streams may provide comparable suspended sediment concentrations during and after storm events, creating favorable conditions for water column N removal. To assess the presence, magnitude, and control of water column N removal during storms in low‐order watersheds, we measured water column denitrification and heterotrophic assimilatory N uptake rates at three locations in a Mid‐Atlantic watershed during five storm events of different magnitude, sediment loads, and nutrient availability. We found large variations in water column denitrification (0–5.56 mg N g−1 d−1) and assimilatory uptake (0.003–1.67 mg N g−1 d−1). Higher rates of N removal occurred during flow recession, with a correlation between suspended sediment organic matter content and denitrification. On average, denitrification rates in the water column were higher when flashy responses to storm events occurred. In contrast to denitrification, water column N removal rates (as both denitrification and heterotrophic assimilation) during storm events were comparable to those measured at baseflow in larger rivers. However, water column denitrification could only account for less than 10% of potential reach‐scale N removal during most of the storm events. Our findings provide insight into the ecological relevance of small stream water columns and suggest that more research is needed to understand the magnitude of stream water column processing on watershed‐scale N removal.

Numerical investigation for the influence of suspended sediment on salinity distribution in the Qiantang Estuary, China

Numerous studies have demonstrated that high suspended sediment concentration (SSC) can change density distribution and affect water mixing, but few scholars have investigated this impact on numerical simulations of estuarian salinity distribution. The Qiantang Estuary is a macro-tidal estuary with high SSC, which has a more significant influence on water density than that of salinity. Therefore, this paper established a three-dimensional (3D) numerical model coupling flow, salinity and SSC based on Delft3D and first analyzes the impact of SSC on salinity distribution under different runoff and tidal conditions in the Qiantang Estuary. The results indicated that simulated salinity generally decreases when considering the impact of SSC, suggesting a weakening effect on saltwater intrusion. The distribution of salinity difference (ΔS) and SSC show a strong spatial and temporal correlation, and ΔS peak increases and shifts upstream as the tidal range increases or runoff discharge decreases. The mechanism of SSC influencing saltwater intrusion can be summarized as follows: On the one hand, SSC increases the water density, which weakens the driving force for saltwater to move upstream, causing a decrease in flood current velocity and water level, and thereby diminishing the advective transport of salinity. On the other hand, SSC enhances density stratification, which weakens vertical turbulence and reduces the dispersive transport of salinity. These combined effects reduce both the advective and diffusive salinity fluxes during the flood tide, ultimately leading to a decrease in upstream salinity. Therefore, neglecting this effect in estuaries with high SSC can cause significant deviations in salinity simulation results, especially under low-flow and high-tide conditions.

Intercomparison of optical scattering turbidity sensors for a wide range of suspended sediment types and concentrations

To monitor the effects of rapid changes in climate and land use on sediment export from erodible environments, it is crucial to accurately quantify highly fluctuating suspended sediment concentrations (SSCs) in contrasted river systems that drain small to mesoscale catchments. To this end, we investigate the turbidity-based quantification of SSCs in the range of 0.05–100 g/L through laboratory experiments performed with 7 different types of turbidity sensors and sediments from 10 watersheds. We find that measurements of scattered light from multiple angles may allow for: (1) an extended monitoring range with SSCs up to 10–100 g/L, where enhanced uncertainty may occur near the transition in the effective operational ranges of the underlying signals (typically somewhere in the range of 1–10 g/L); and/or (2) a slightly reduced sensitivity to sediment properties. The specific turbidity of the investigated sensors is inversely related to particle diameter (D10) for SSCs up to 1–5 g/L. Backscatter and combined-signal sensors also show a dependency on sediment colour (CIE a∗), which becomes particularly prominent at SSCs above 10 g/L. We relate this increase in colour dependency with SSC to the expected effect of cumulative near-infrared light absorption associated with multiple scattering. We discuss covarying physical properties of naturally occurring river sediment that can dampen or enhance measurement sensitivity and result in turbidity-based SSC rating curves that may strongly differ in magnitude and form from curves derived for industrially prepared material that is often used for sensor calibration. Although the differences in SSC per sensor among sediment types are generally less than one order of magnitude, the systematic errors and uncertainties associated with high SSCs are typically greater than one order of magnitude and may disproportionally affect the quantification of sediment loads during large-magnitude flow events.

What do glass sponges do when no one is looking? Vazella pourtalesii: Responses to sediment deposition, passive locomotion, and contracting behavior

Behavioral response of deep-sea sponges can provide crucial insights into the mechanisms shaping energy fluxes and ecosystem functioning. Although some advances have been made, the behavior of deep-sea Hexactinellid still remain widely unknown. In the present study we address the glass sponge Vazella pourtalesii behavior. High-temporal resolution imaging and environmental data were acquired with an autonomous lander deployed in the Sambro Bank Sponge Conservation Area (Scotian Shelf) at a depth of 150 m, representing the upper limit of this deep-sea species' distribution and what is commonly regarded as the deep sea.For 94 days, a V. pourtalesii individual was monitored, providing quantitative information on its response to sediment deposition triggered by a storm, as well as on its passive locomotion and contractive behavior. Sediment was cleared from its surface within 72 h, which is highly relevant for its filtering capacity, indicating that this sponge species can cope with high suspended sediment concentrations. This enables it to occur on sedimentary environments like the Scotian Shelf. As observed in other deep-sea hexactinellids, the monitored individual engaged in rhythmic contractions, which appear to be driven by physiological process/es rather than environmental factors. During the study period, strong bottom currents (>37 cm/s) toppled and displaced the monitored individual several times. Despite changes in position and orientation that can negatively impact the filtering capacity of sponges, no signs of deterioration were observed. V. pourtalesii's vase-like body morphology and attachment to cobbles, as a gravitational center, may allow it to have a more homogeneous interaction with currents which may permit them to better cope with positional changes. Overall, this study highlights that deep-sea Porifera display a wide array of phenological changes in response to both biotic and abiotic factors.

Sediment remobilization over subaqueous sand waves: In-situ observation in the northern South China Sea

High-resolution tripod observations were conducted in a subaqueous sand-wave field in the northern South China Sea. The objective was to gain insight into the dynamic mechanism by which sandy sediments are remobilized by oceanic dynamic processes, in particular internal solitary waves and internal tides. Daily-recurring high suspended sediment concentrations were observed, likely due to lateral transport of sediments resuspended by critical reflection of diurnal internal tides at the shelf break. The passage of extreme internal solitary waves results in resuspension of sediments from the seabed and ejection of these sediments out of the boundary layer. The resuspension of sediments from the seabed is controlled by current-induced strong bed shear stress, while the ejection of sediments out of the bottom boundary layer is driven by the compression and subsequent expansion of the mixing layer, together with the developments of the separation bubbles behind the internal solitary waves. These findings provide new insights into understanding the dynamic mechanism of sediment remobilization by internal solitary waves. Moreover, they contribute to our understanding of the migration of subaqueous sand waves.

The Emu Bay Shale: A unique early Cambrian Lagerstätte from a tectonically active basin.

The Emu Bay Shale (EBS) of South Australia is anomalous among Cambrian Lagerstätten because it captures anatomical information that is rare in Burgess Shale-type fossils, and because of its inferred nearshore setting, the nature of which has remained controversial. Intensive study, combining outcrop and borehole data with a compilation of >25,000 fossil specimens, reveals that the EBS biota inhabited a fan delta complex within a tectonically active basin. Preservation of soft-bodied organisms in this setting is unexpected and further underscores differences between the EBS and other Cambrian Lagerstätten. Environmental conditions, including oxygen fluctuations, slope instability, high suspended sediment concentrations, and episodic high-energy events, inhibited colonization of the lower prodelta by all but a few specialist species but favored downslope transportation and preservation of other largely endemic, shallow-water benthos. The EBS provides extraordinary insight into early Cambrian animal diversity from Gondwana. These results demonstrate how environmental factors determined community composition and provide a framework for understanding this unique Konservat-Lagerstätte.

Deep learning insights into suspended sediment concentrations across the conterminous United States: Strengths and limitations

Suspended sediment concentration (SSC) is a crucial indicator for aquatic ecosystems and reservoir management but is challenging to predict at large scales. It is unclear whether SSC is predictable using macroscopic environmental attributes and forcings. This study tested the feasibility of deep-network-based models to predict daily SSC at basin outlets given only basin-averaged forcings, readily-available physiographic attributes, and streamflow (from observation or model). We trained long short-term memory (LSTM) deep networks both separately for each of the 377 sites across the conterminous United States (CONUS) (termed “local models”), and on all the sites collectively (Whole-CONUS). The Whole-CONUS and local models presented median coefficient of determination (R2) values of 0.63 and 0.52, respectively. This comparison agrees with previously acknowledged “data synergy” effects for LSTM models, where more data from more sites can help improve predictions overall. Furthermore, the continental-scale analysis provided a wealth of insights about SSC patterns. Both local and Whole-CONUS models tended to be more successful where SSC-streamflow correlations (Rs-q) were high − typically in the humid Eastern US − and with lower SSC. Low Rs-q basins were often found in the arid Southwest with higher SSC. The highly-nonlinear SSC-streamflow relationships seem related to seasonality, basin size, and heterogeneity of land cover and rainfall within the basins, suggesting these basins need to be simulated at higher spatial resolution and may require additional inputs related to SSC induced by seasonality. The Whole-CONUS model also performed well for spatial extrapolation (basins not included in the training dataset, median R2 = 0.55), supporting large-scale modeling efforts. These state-of-the-art results using only minimal inputs suggest data-driven approaches can exploit the natural coevolution of sediment processes and the environment to support sediment modeling.

A typical point bar with atypical strata in the McMurray Formation, Alberta, Canada: Floods, tides and high suspended sediment concentrations

AbstractStratigraphic positions and the nature of some breccias and mudstones observed in the Lower Cretaceous McMurray Formation type section (Alberta, Canada) challenge the existing fluvial point bar facies models. The currently applied large‐scale, tidally influenced, sandy bedload facies model suggests that point bars fine upward, where breccias and cross‐strata occur at the base of the succession and mud content increases upward. Instead, this study documents that: (i) mudstone clast breccias are not exclusively associated with basal channel‐lag deposits and can occur throughout the point bar; and (ii) stratified mudstones are not limited to the top of the fining‐upward succession and can occur at or near the channel base. This outcrop data, including lithology, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, bed thickness and boundaries, and the nature of stratal packages, further suggests dynamic interplay between fluvial and tidal processes. This article discusses the potential role of high‐magnitude river floods in temporarily elevated suspended sediment concentrations and highlights that fluid mud processes played a crucial role in mud deposition in both tide‐influenced and fluvial parts of the system. Fluid mud processes allowed mud deposition along the channel base and across the point bar accretion surfaces. The breccias predominantly consist of broken pieces of inclined heterolithic strata and mostly occur on accretion sets of point bars, suggesting erosion and collapse of the point bar rather than of the cutbank. This work introduces a novel perspective to the existing models of point bar sedimentation, offering a new end member and concepts for the interpretation of subsurface data. The authors hope that this research encourages further investigations into similar phenomena elsewhere in the world.

Sources of suspended sediments in salt marsh creeks: Field measurements in China and the Netherlands

Marsh creeks are perceived as important conduits for transporting water and sediment between mudflats and marshes. In order to advance the understanding of the transport mechanisms in creeks, the source and ultimate sink of sediment which moves between mudflats and marshes through creek channels need further investigation. Therefore, two field campaigns were conducted in two intertidal systems with varying sediment availability. The water depth, flow velocity, suspended sediment concentration, and bed level change were measured simultaneously in a marsh creek and on the adjacent mudflat in Chongming Island (China) and in Paulina Saltmarsh (the Netherlands). Paulina Saltmarsh is much smaller, more frequently flooded, and has lower sediment concentration than Chongming. These contrasting conditions allow for a comparison of transport mechanisms and functioning of the creek. Both systems first show that the high suspended sediment concentration (SSC) measured in marsh creeks is mainly the consequence of sediment advection rather than local erosion. In addition, erosion in marsh creeks is usually limited during ebb tides, reducing the export of sediment through these creeks. However, differences have been observed between two systems. The measured SSC was highly asymmetric between flood and ebb tides in Chongming. Large peaks in SSC during the flood period can be observed for most tidal cycles. The marsh creeks in Chongming therefore function as conduits for sediment import. Additionally, there are distinct overbank and underbank tides in Chongming. Sediment was trapped and retained in creeks during underbank tides, which can then be eroded and transported to the marsh during subsequent overbank tides. We also observed that mudflats in Chongming quickly recovered after erosion. These mechanisms have not been observed in Paulina Saltmarsh, where net sediment export via the marsh creek was observed due to a lack of abundant sediment in suspension during flood tides. Furthermore, the remaining bed surface of mudflats after an erosion event was stronger than before, limiting further erosion in Paulina Saltmarsh. These findings from the two systems indicate that the role of creeks in sediment import/export depends on the availability of sediment from mudflats, shedding light on nourishment strategies for salt marshes.

Experimental study on the effects of sediment size gradation and suspended sediment concentration on the settling velocity, ws

The settling velocity of non-uniform sediment is of great importance for the sediment transport on coasts and estuaries. Although existing settling velocity formulas have already considered factors such as the Suspended Sediment Concentration (SSC), temperature, salinity, turbulence, and the effect of size gradation on the settling velocity, more studies are needed. In this study, the fiber optic sensors and Particle Track Velocimetry (PTV) for high SSC were used to measure the settling velocity of two size gradations with different SSCs in a settling column in laboratory. The size gradation curves and settling velocities of these two non-cohesive sediment with SSCs ranged from 0.1 kg/m3 to 50 kg/m3 were obtained. When the SSC is less than or equal to 0.1 kg/m3, the settling velocity is close to the grain size distribution weighted average settling velocity. With the increase of SSC, the distance between sediment particles decreases, and the mutual influence between different components become important, resulting in a decrease in the settling velocity of large-sized particles and an increase in the settling velocity of small-sized particles. This phenomenon is more pronounced for natural sediments. Based on the experimental results, a particle size distribution correction coefficient was proposed to fit the fine-grained settling velocity in quiescent water considering size gradation and sediment concentration.

Formation mechanism of drift-moat contourite systems revealed by in-situ observations in the South China Sea

Contourite drifts are ubiquitous sedimentary features in the world′s oceans, and their formation are usually ascribed to sedimentation from contour currents. However, in-situ observations of contour currents and their associated sedimentary processes were inadequate. Here, we present mooring observation results from a drift-moat contourite system in the South China Sea to gain insight into its sediment dynamics and formation mechanism. We found that quasi-persistent contour currents develop in the moat, on and below the drift, yet subject to diverse physical oceanographic processes. High suspended sediment concentrations observed on the drift mainly occur in winter, induced by high levels of sediments transported by contour currents from Taiwan. In the moat, however, high suspended sediment concentrations are mostly caused by erosion of the moat wall during periods of strong tidal currents and low shear variance. Such results underscore the complexity of current patterns and sedimentary processes across various topographic units in the drift-moat contourite system. A novel formation mechanism of the contourite drift is thereby proposed, wherein sediment transport by contour currents brings materials for constructing the drift, while its formation is driven by near-critical reflection and upslope transport of sediments by tidal currents.

Ecological Impact of Hydraulic Dredging from an Alpine Reservoir on the Downstream River

The evacuation of impounded sediments is one of the most critical aspects associated with reservoirs, with possible drawbacks on the water quality, biodiversity, and ecosystem integrity of downstream river reaches. In this study, the impacts of hydraulic dredging at the Ambiesta Reservoir (Eastern Italian Alps) on the physical habitat and the biological communities (i.e., benthic macroinvertebrates and fish) of the downstream river were assessed by comparing the pre-dredging conditions with data collected on three post-dredging occasions. The dredging operation lasted 68 days and removed an overall sediment volume of 30,600 m3. During this operation, suspended sediment concentration (SSC) was monitored by turbidimeters and, on average, it was considerably lower than the SSC limit of 1.5 g/L, which exceeded approximately 15% of the overall operation time. Additionally, the dredging operation resulted in negligible deposition of fine sediment on/into the riverbed (0.24–0.7 kg/m2). Results for fish and benthic macroinvertebrate communities indicated weak differences in the density (~20% reduction) and diversity of these organisms between pre- and post-dredging sampling occasions. Moreover, the results on the biomonitoring indices based on macroinvertebrates showed a recovery during the last two sampling occasions. Compliance with the SSC limit and avoidance of high SSC peaks, along with limited fine sediment deposition, allowed to successfully mitigate the ecological impacts of this relatively long operation of sediment removal.

Sediment-Nitrogen (N) connectivity: suspended sediments in streams as N exporters and reactors for denitrification and assimilatory N uptake during storms

Nitrogen (N) pollution in riverine ecosystems has substantial environmental, economic, and policy consequences. Various riverine N removal processes include permanent dissimilatory sinks such as denitrification (Uden) and temporary assimilatory sink such as microbial N uptake (Uassim). Both processes have been extensively evaluated in benthic sediments but only sparsely in the water column, particularly for storm flows producing high suspended sediment (SS) concentrations. Stormflows also increase the sediment bound N (Sed-N) export, and in turn, the overall N exports from watersheds. The balance between N removal by Uden and Uassim vs. Sed-N export has not been studied and is a key knowledge gap. We assessed the magnitude of Uden and Uassim against stormflow Sed-N exports for multiple storm events of varying magnitude and across two drainage areas (750 ha and 15,330 ha) in a mixed landuse mid-Atlantic US watershed. We asked: How do the Uden and Uassim sinks compare with Sed-N exports and how do these N fluxes vary across the drainage areas for sampled storms on the rising and falling limbs of the discharge hydrograph? Mean Uden and Uassim as % of the Sed-N exports ranged between 0.1–40% and 0.6–22%, respectively. Storm event Uassim fluxes were generally slightly lower than the corresponding Uden fluxes. Similarly, comparable but slightly higher Uden fluxes were observed for the second order vs. the fourth order stream, while Uassim fluxes were slightly higher in the fourth-order stream. Both of these N sinks were higher on the falling vs. rising limbs of the hydrograph. This suggests that while the N sinks are not trivial, sediment bound N exports during large stormflows will likely overshadow any gains in N removal by SS associated denitrification. Understanding these N source-sink dynamics for storm events is critical for accurate watershed nutrient modeling and for better pollution mitigation strategies for downstream aquatic ecosystems. These results are especially important within the context of climate change as extreme hydrological events including storms are becoming more and more frequent.

Plume dispersal of a hyper-eutrophic micro-estuary to the eastern mediterranean during base flow and flood events

Rivers are the primary source of dissolved and particulate materials entering the oceans. Recent studies conducted in Mediterranean streams showed a decrease in freshwater flow which indicates that this oligotrophic region, and probably other semi-arid oligotrophic regions, are likely to become more affected by small stream discharge and an increase in flood event intensity and frequency which indicates the increasing importance of studying flood conditions. However, little is known about the dispersal patterns of small streams and micro-estuaries and their influence on the coastal environment. We investigated the discharge from the Alexander Stream micro-estuary into the eastern Mediterranean as a case study for the fate of nutrients and pollutants discharged from micro-estuaries. Our objective is to characterize the Alexander Stream plume dispersal during base flow and flood events using salinity as a tracer for solute dispersal and by measuring the concentrations of suspended matter. The advection pattern during base flow was characterized by a current that clings to shore and mostly flows southward as a thin layer. This steady influx enriches the coastal water with high nutrient loads and carries pollutants toward Beit Yannai recreational beach, chronically exposing the shore and its users year-round. During floods, the plume disperses mostly northward along the coastline, and a considerable volume of suspended sediments settles near the estuary outfall, creating a hotspot of potentially contaminated sediment. At the peak discharge of the flood, the high concentrations of suspended sediments form hyperpycnal flows seaward near the seafloor and along the shelf. These results show the influence of small streams on the marine and coastal environments in semi-arid regions, which is predicted to expand to more temperate zones in the future.

Study on the Impact of Offshore Wind Farms on Surrounding Water Environment in the Yangtze Estuary Based on Remote Sensing

Offshore wind farms (OWFs), built extensively in recent years, induce changes in the surrounding water environment. The changes in the suspended sediment concentration (SSC) and chlorophyll-a concentration (Chl-aC) induced by an OWF in the Yangtze River Estuary were analyzed based on Chinese Gaofen (GF) satellite data. The results show the following: (1) The flow near the wind turbines makes the bottom water surge, driving the sediment to “re-suspend” and be lost, deepening the scour pit around the bottom of the wind turbines, which is known as “self-digging”. The interaction between the pillar of a wind turbine and tidal currents makes hydrodynamic factors more complicated. Blocking by wind turbines promoting the scour of the bottom seabed of the OWF results in speeding up the circulation rate of sediment loss and “re-suspension”, which contributes to the change in the SSC and Chl-aC. This kind of change in sediment transport in estuarine areas due to human construction affects the balance of the ecological environment. Long-term sediment loss around wind turbines also influences the safety of wind turbines. (2) The SSC and Chl-aC are mainly in the range of 200–600 mg/L and 3–7 μg/L, respectively, in the OWF area, higher than the values obtained in surrounding waters. The SSC and Chl-aC downstream of the OWF are higher than those upstream, with differences of 100–300 mg/L and 0.5–2 μg/L. High SSC and Chl-aC “tails” appear downstream of wind turbines, consistent with the direction of local tidal currents, with lengths in the range of 2–4 km. In addition, the water environment in the vicinity of a wind turbine array, with a roughly 2–5 km scope (within 4 km during flooding and around 2.5 km during ebbing approximately) downstream of the wind turbine array, is impacted by the OWF. (3) In order to solve the problem of “self-digging” induced by OWFs, it is suggested that the distance between two wind turbines should be controlled within 2–3.5 km in the main flow direction, promising that the second row of wind turbines will be placed on the suspended sediment deposition belt induced by the first row. In this way, the problems of ecosystem imbalance and tidal current structure change caused by sediment loss because of local scouring can be reduced. Furthermore, mutual compensation between wind turbines can solve the “self-digging” problem to a certain extent and ensure the safety of OWFs.

Sedimentary processes in the bottom boundary layer of a contourite drift in the northern South China Sea

Ocean dynamic processes in the bottom boundary layer (BBL) are crucial for sedimentation, such as deposition and resuspension of marine sediments. In this study, we conducted in-situ tripod observations of the sediment ridge of a contourite drift in the northern South China Sea to understand the main dynamic processes affecting sedimentation on the contourite drifts. It was found that the diurnal tidal current was the strongest current at the study site, thus acting as the main dynamic affecting sedimentation processes. Periodic events of elevated suspended sediment concentration (SSC) were observed, some of which occurred only within 15 m above the seafloor and were termed near-bottom high SSC events, while others covered the entire range of the observed water column and were termed full-depth high SSC events. In-situ sediment resuspension at the sediment ridge is not an important factor affecting the formation of high SSC events. Rather, these high SSC events were mainly caused by lateral transport of sediments from the main body of the contourite drift by the northwestward diurnal tidal currents. The seafloor sediments at the main drift body are resuspened owing to the near-critical reflection of diurnal tidal currents on the slope topography of the drift. During periods when diurnal tidal currents were weak, locally generated internal waves could also induce burst-like full-depth high SSC events. This study highlights the diurnal tidal current as the main dynamic regulating the sedimentary processes of the contourite drifts in regions where the near-critical reflection prone to occur, implying the complexity of sediment dynamics of contourite drifts.

Retrieval of suspended sediment concentration (SSC) in the Arabian Gulf water of arid region by Sentinel-2 data

Suspended sediment concentration (SSC) in water increases temperature and turbidity, limits the photosynthesis of aquatic plants, and reduces biologically available oxygen. It is important to study SSC in the coastal waters of the Arabian Gulf. Thus, this study mapped the SSC of coastal water between Al Arish and Al Ghariyah in northern Qatar using the spectral bands of the MultiSpectral Imager (MSI) of Sentinel-2 by calculating the Normalized Difference Suspended Sediment Index and Normalized Suspended Material Index. The results are studied using the Normalized Difference Turbidity Index and Modified Normalized Difference Water Index. The mapping of SSC in the water using NDSSI showed the presence of a high concentration of suspended sediments between Al Arish and Al Mafjar and a low concentration between Al Mafjar and Al Ghariyah. The mapping of NSMI showed values between 0.012 (clear water) and 0.430 (more suspended material) for the occurrence of suspended materials and supported the results of NDSSI. The study of turbidity using an NDTI image showed turbidity index values ranging from −0.44 (clear water) to 0.12 (high turbidity) and confirmed the occurrence and distribution of suspended sediments and materials in the water. The MNDWI image was able to discriminate clear water with bright pixels from silty sand and mud flats. The relationships between NDSSI, NSMI, and NDTI were correlated with in-situ measurements and studied to find suitable indices to map SSC. Regression analyses showed the strongest relationship between NSMI and NDTI (R2 = 0.95) next to NDSSI and NDTI, where NDTI had the strongest effect on NDSSI (R2 = 0.86). The satellite data results were evaluated by studying the physical parameters and spatial distribution of suspended sediments in the surface and bottom waters. In addition, the grain size distributions, mineral identification, and chemical element concentrations in the bottom sediment samples were studied.

Alternating patterns of cross-shelf suspended sediment transport in the northern East China Sea in winter

Suspended sediment transport across the continental shelf is a key process for the materials exchange between coastal seas and the deep ocean. The cross-shelf transport through the Yangtze Shoal in the northern East China Sea (ECS) exhibits a unique pattern, which is characterized by alternations between high and low values in suspended sediment concentration (SSC). This study is conducted to reveal the underlying mechanisms and their effects on sediment fluxes. Surface SSC retrieved from GOCI data are combined with in situ observations of concentration and particle sizes of suspended sediment to study the temporal and spatial variations of the SSC in the Yangtze Shoal. Additionally, a numerical model for examining ocean circulation based on the FVCOM is established to display the hydrodynamic feature in the study area. The alternating SSC pattern is closely related to the topography of three ridges and two troughs. High SSC with fine particle size can be found over the ridge, while low SSC is detected at the surface layer of water in the trough. Even during the flood and ebb tides, this alternating pattern of high and low SSCs does not change, except for the expansion and contraction of coverage areas of high SSC. The high SSC near the tidal ridge should have resulted from the combined effect of resuspension and upwelling since the stronger bottom shear stress and a surface divergence that may induce an upwelling can be found in this area. Combined with the simulated current, the sediment transport flux between ridges and troughs is estimated. The sediment flux in the ridge is substantially increased than that in the trough, especially during the flood maximum and ebb maximum time. The contribution of suspended sediments from the Yangtze Shoal to the Southwestern Cheju Island Mud (SCIM) is relatively small during the normal weather in winter. However, cross-shelf transport can be remarkably strengthened by strong northerly winds in winter. This work puts forward a detailed cross-shelf transportation process induced by topography.