Higher Levels Of Arousal Research Articles

Behaviour-related effects of nicotine on slow EEG waves in basal nucleus-lesioned rats

The basal magnocellular nucleus is assumed to play a crucial role in cholinergic activation of the cortical EEG. The aim of this study was to establish whether intraperitoneally applied nicotine may counteract the power asymmetry of the slow waves in the cortical EEG of both hemispheres after an unilateral lesion in the basal nucleus. In 17 rats the basal nucleus (substantia innominata/ventral pallidum) was unilaterally lesioned by ibotenic acid. The lesion produced unilateral power increases of all frequencies up to 20 Hz in the frontal EEG that increased with higher arousal level. Additionally, synchronized spike and wave discharges appeared in the frontal EEG. The results indicate that the basal nucleus suppresses especially the delta EEG waves in the frontal motor cortex during motor active behaviour. Nicotine (0.1 and 1 mg/kg) partially counteracts the power asymmetry of frontal slow waves (2-6 Hz) only during exploratory sniffing but not during grooming and waking immobility. Physostigmine (1 mg/kg) was also effective during exploratory sniffing. The results may indicate a role of nicotinic mechanisms in the information input component of exploratory behaviour.

Sleep disturbance and its relationship to psychiatric morbidity after Hurricane Andrew.

Sleep disturbance is an important dimension of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), but most of the limited available data were obtained years after the original traumatic event. This study provides information on sleep disturbance and its relationship to posttraumatic morbidity from evaluations done within a year after the trauma. Sleep and psychiatric symptoms of 54 victims (12 men and 42 women) of Hurricane Andrew who had no psychiatric illness in the 6 months before the hurricane were evaluated. A subset of hurricane victims with active psychiatric morbidity (N = 10) and nine comparison subjects who were unaffected by the hurricane were examined in a sleep laboratory. A broad range of sleep-related complaints were rated as being greater after the hurricane, and psychiatric morbidity (which was most commonly PTSD, followed by depression) had a significant effect on most of the subjective sleep measures. In addition, subjects with active morbidity endorsed greater frequencies of "bad dreams" and general sleep disturbances before the hurricane. Polysomnographic results for the hurricane victims revealed a greater number of arousals and entries into stage 1 sleep. REM density correlated positively with both the PTSD symptom of reexperiencing trauma and global distress. Subjects affected by Hurricane Andrew reported sleep disturbances, particularly those subjects with psychiatric morbidity. Tendencies to experience bad dreams and interrupted sleep before a trauma appear to mark vulnerability to posttraumatic morbidity. Results of sleep laboratory evaluations suggested brief shifts toward higher arousal levels during sleep for PTSD subjects and a relationship of REM phasic activity and symptom severity.

High autonomic arousal and electrodermal orienting at age 15 years as protective factors against criminal behavior at age 29 years

Nothing is known about biological factors that protect a predisposed individual from becoming criminal. This 14-year prospective study tested the hypothesis that antisocial adolescents who desist from crime by age 29 have greater physiological arousal and orienting than antisocial adolescents who become adult criminals. Physiological arousal and orienting were measured in 101 unselected 15-year-old male schoolchildren. Of these, 17 antisocial adolescents who desisted from adult crime (desistors) were matched on adolescent antisocial behavior and demographic variables with 17 antisocial adolescents who became criminal by age 29 (criminals), and 17 nonantisocial, noncriminal normal subjects. Desistors had significantly higher electrodermal and cardiovascular arousal and higher electrodermal orienting than the criminal group. This is the first study to report biological factors that protect against the development of criminal behavior. The findings suggest that individuals predisposed to adult crime by virtue of showing antisocial behavior in adolescence may be protected from committing crime by high levels of autonomic arousal and orienting.

Stress and Arousal in Deployment of a Combat Support Hospital

Two hundred thirty-nine soldiers from the 28th Combat Support Hospital were evaluated for stress and arousal during deployment preparations for Operation Uphold Democracy. We measured stress and arousal using the Stress Arousal Checklist and found increased levels of arousal in officers and older soldiers. We also found higher levels of arousal in soldiers reporting a greater number of hours of sleep during the preceding 24 hours. We found no significant difference in stress scores for several demographic and coping behavior groups. Based on lower arousal scores, younger, sleep-deprived, and enlisted soldiers may be at the highest risk for accidents during deployment preparations.

Coping and Personality as Predictors of Post-Traumatic Intrusions, Numbing, Avoidance and General Distress: A Study of Victims of the Perth Flood

Trauma symptoms, coping and personality were assessed in 44 victims of the Perth flood. The sample was characterized by high levels of intrusions, numbness, arousal and general emotional distress. General levels of symptomatology were predicted by two coping strategies: emotion-focused coping and thought suppression. Overall trauma symptoms and emotion-focused coping were associated with the personality trait of neuroticism. These data are consistent with the Wells and Matthews (1994a) model of affective disorders and stress. The model proposes that certain types of emotion-focused coping tend to lead to greater access to negative self-beliefs, and that thought suppression tends to prime subsequent intruding thoughts. A second personality trait, private self-consciousness, was associated with relatively greater levels of numbing symptoms, and relatively lower levels of arousal symptoms. This patterning of symptoms may result from use of ruminative coping strategies. Hence, intrusions of trauma-related material are not simply a function of automatic activation of a fear network, but are also influenced by the person's voluntary efforts to deal with the aftermath of the event.

The relationship between treatment goals and recidivism among child molesters

Preliminary findings from a longitudinal outcome study of sex offender treatment are presented. Ss included 76 child molesters who were treated in a comprehensive relapse prevention program, and 79 molesters who were randomly assigned to a control (no treatment) condition. Three sets of findings are reported: survival analyses of time to reoffense; in-treatment change data relevant to the program's treatment goals; and the relationships between treatment measures and risk of reoffense. Over an average followup period of 38 months, there was a trend for treatment Ss to be at lower risk for both sex and violent crimes than were controls. Treatment Ss showed significant progress towards treatment goals of increased acceptance of personal responsibility for their crimes and decreased levels of deviant sexual arousal. Measures of personal responsibility, however, were not related to risk of rearrest for new sex crimes. Treatment Ss with high levels of both deviant and nondeviant sexual arousal were more likely to commit new sex offenses, but not other violent offenses. The strongest predictor in the study was a measure of the Ss' skills in applying the relapse prevention model, with highly skilled Ss being less likely to commit new sex crimes.

An ethogram for the small scincid lizard Lampropholis guichenoti

Abstract This paper describes and interprets the behaviours exhibited by captive specimens of Lampropholis guichenoti. An ethogram containing 45 behavioural acts was compiled. Complex communication displays were lacking in L. guichenoti, although many behaviours exhibited by this species were similar (and perhaps, evolutionarily homologous) to more complex displays in other types of lizards. Head-bobbing occurred but (judging from its context, and the lack of response of other lizards) functioned to enhance visual acuity rather than to serve as a social signal. Similarly, tail-twitching and tail-lashing occurred in both aggressive and submissive contexts, and seemed to express high levels of arousal rather than to act as ritualised social signals. Female L. guichenoti used a hitherto-unreported behaviour pattern (leg-twitching) to express submission.

Contexts and social correlates of long-distance calling by male chimpanzees

Abstract. Chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, live in unstable social groups, whose members associate in temporary parties of varying size and composition. Male chimpanzees utter a long-distance vocalization, the pant-hoot, that has been hypothesized to maintain spatial contact between conspecifics within and between parties. To test this hypothesis, the contexts in which calls by males were produced and the effects several social factors had on pant-hoot production were examined. Males travelled significantly more often before and after hooting than expected by chance. In addition, high-ranking males gave more pant-hoots than lower-ranking individuals, and variation in party size did not affect call production. These data are consistent with the proposed spacing function of pant-hooting, and do not support the suggestion that hooting is a simple manifestation of the high arousal levels caused by social or feeding excitement. Additional observations revealed that subjects called more frequently when alliance partners were nearby, compared with when they were absent. Males also called more when their close associates were nearby relative to situations when those associates either accompanied them or were absent. In contrast, the presence of preferred grooming partners and oestrous females within earshot did not affect the production of pant-hoots by males. These results suggest that males may pant-hoot to particular audiences within their social group, specifically to maintain contact with and to recruit allies and associates. Investigation of how chimpanzees respond to pant-hoots will be necessary to confirm this hypothesis.

Long term care on the NHS: a vanishing prospect.

? Treat the underlying cause: Psychiatric disturbance Physical disease Chronic pain Misuse of substances, particularly alcohol Complaints of not getting enough sleep are not always related to actual or easily detected changes in patterns of sleep. Satisfaction with sleep is controlled by a number of factors and often is not associated with objective findings. Insomnia is the most common disturbance of sleep, and accompanies several diseases. Psychiatric and physical disease, chronic pain, and misuse of substances (particularly alcohol) are common causes of secondary insomnia. Primary insomnia, supposedly caused by dysfunction of the sleep mechanisms in the brain, is uncommon but may develop at any age and is occasionally precipitated by changes in the system of behavioural cues or contingencies that control sleep. Subjects with primary insomnia can crudely be separated into those with high or low levels of arousal. The diagnosis of insomnia must be based on a full history, clinical examination, and an understanding both of the patient's personality and environment. For this minority of patients long term treatment with hypnotic drugs may be appropriate.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Among Salvadoran Women:

Previous research has documented post-traumatic stress disorder among Salvadoran refugees in this country, but information on refugees living in El Salvador is not available. This study investigated the patterns of psychological distress and documented the existence of PTSD in Salvadoran refugee women in El Salvador. A team of U.S. mental health workers traveled to a refugee camp in El Salvador to interview women about their traumatic experiences and current symptoms of distress. This study provides strong evidence that many refugee women in El Salvador have developed PTSD and that many others show significant signs of distress. Data from this study also provided insight into clinical issues for Salvadoran women experiencing PTSD. In response to requests from Salvadoran mental health providers, a treatment program was developed to help Salvadoran women reduce their distress. Goals of the treatment included associating distress with the trauma as a normal reaction to a very abnormal event, reducing feelings of loss of control, reducing "survivor guilt," and lessening anxiety and high arousal level. These goals were accomplished using cognitive-behavioral and community-oriented strategies.

Nonverbal behaviors as indices of arousal: Extension to the psychotherapy context

In an investigation guided by the premise that overt nonverbal indices may often be practical and valid indicators of arousal, Burgoon, Kelley, Newton, and Keeley-Dyreson (1989) found different nonverbal behaviors associated with arousal intensity and with positively and negatively valenced arousal. The current investigation extends that research to a new context, examining (1) the ability of a global measure of observed arousal and specific nonverbal indices of arousal intensity and valence to detect presumed nonlinear arousal changes during psychotherapy, (2) the differential impact of nonverbal indicators across phases of a therapy session, and (3) the relationship of nonverbal indicators to therapy outcome. Raters judged all-channel global arousal or specific kinesic and vocalic nonverbal behaviors during Focused Expressive Psychotherapy (FEP) sessions, during which high levels of negative arousal are evoked. Manifest global arousal, random movement/self-adaptors, and kinesic pleasantness conformed to hypothesized nonlinear patterns across time within therapy sessions. Nonverbal correlates of manifest global arousal varied across therapy phases. Moderate manifest arousal, especially random movement/self-adaptors and vocal tension, and high vocal expressiveness during the middle of the therapy work session were most predictive of patients' self-reported resolution at the end of therapy.

Recollections of a robbery: Effects of arousal and alcohol upon recall and person identification.

One week after committing a simulated robbery while intoxicated or sober, each of 142 subjects recalled the event within a “cognitive interview”. In an initial exploratory experiment, alcohol consumption reduced the accuracy of recall of a variety of types of information, in particular, information about persons. In the second experiment, person identification suffered following the consumption of alcohol, but only when arousal was low. Higher levels of arousal appeared instead to minimize the negative impact of alcohol upon encoding and recall. Second, whereas the recollections by subjects of what they saw during the crime were not impaired by alcohol consumption, their recollections of what they did were impaired. Both experiments examined the effects of arousal upon the subjects' recalls, and Experiment 2 tested the hypothesis that increased arousal serves to reduce attention to peripheral sources of information. This hypothesis was supported because the identification of persons central to the crime benefited from increased arousal but the identification of persons peripheral to the crime did not. A similar hypothesis about the effects of alcohol received only mixed support because the subjects' behaviors reflected “alcohol myopia” but their identifications of target persons did not. Finally, manipulations at the time of retrieval of the subjects' beliefs about how much alcohol had been consumed also altered accuracy of recall.

The evolutionary psychology of men's coercive sexuality

AbstractPsychological adaptation underlies all human behavior. Thus, sexual coercion by men could either arise from a rape-specific psychological adaptation or it could be a side-effect of a more general psychological adaptation not directly related to rape. Determining the specific environmental cues that men's brains have been designed by selection to process may help us decide which these rival explanations is correct. We examine six testable predictions against existing data: (1) Both coercive and noncoercive will be associated with high levels of sexual arousal and performance in men. (2) Achieving physical control of a sexually unwilling woman will be sexually arousing to men. (3) Young men will be more sexually coercive than older men. (4) Men of low socioeconomic status will likewise be more sexually coercive. (5) A man's motivation to use sexual coercion will be influenced by its effects on social image. (6) Even in long-term relationships men will be motivated to use coercion when their mates show a lack of interest in resistance to sex because these are interpreted as signs of sexual infidelity. Current data support all six predictions and are hence consistent with the rape-specific hypothesis, but this does not eliminate the side-effect hypothesis, which is likewise compatible with the findings, as well as with the further evidence that forced matings increased the fitness of ancestral males during human evolution. We suggest some research that may help decide between the two hypotheses.

Cognitive Therapy for Personality Disorders: A Schema-Focused Approach

Expanding the Boundaries of Cognitive Therapy Cognitive Therapy for Personality Disorders: A Schema-Focused Approach Young, Jeffrey E. Sarasota, FL: Professional Resource Exchange, Inc., 1990. (79 pp.) $11.70 (paperback). The author's primary aim for this book is to show how cognitive therapy can be adapted and expanded to address the unique challenges presented by clients with personality disorders. In the first section, a rationale for such an adaptation and expansion is provided. Young outlines seven basic assumptions associated with cognitive therapy and shows how many of these assumptions are violated when treating clients with personality disorders. More specifically, he points out that the high degree of rigidity, avoidance, and long-term interpersonal difficulties characteristic of this clinical population are significant obstacles to successful treatment when using the "short-term cognitive therapy" approaches pioneered by Beck and others. Young contends that more effective treatments require an expanded cognitive theory-one which can account for the salient themes and patterns exhibited by clients with personality disorders. The second section of the book is devoted to an outline of the conceptual underpinnings of Young's proposed expansion. Drawing upon schema theory in cognitive psychology, Young contends that any complete understanding of personality disorders must go beyond the three levels of cognitive phenomena identified with short-term cognitive therapy (automatic thoughts, cognitive distortions, and underlying assumptions) and include a focus on the "deepest level of cognition"-what he terms the Early Maladaptive Schema (EMS). According to Young, EMSs are "extremely stable and enduring themes that develop during childhood and are elaborated upon throughout an individual's lifetime. These schemas serve as templates for the processing of later experience." (p. 9) In brief relief, through the EMS construct Young presents a case for the developmental etiology of personality disorders. EMSs are characterized as unconditional and self-perpetuating beliefs about oneself and the world that are presumed to be the consequence of dysfunctional childhood experiences with parents. Young suggests that EMSs are typically activated by current environmental events related to the schema and are often associated with a high level of emotional arousal. In his most recent revised list of specific schemas (found in Appendix B of the book), Young identifies 16 distinctEMSs that are grouped into five categories (Impaired Autonomy, Disconnection, Undesirability, Restricted Self-Expression, and Insufficient Limits). A thorough understanding of the themes and issues associated with these "core" schemas is fundamental to the practice of schema-focused therapy. In the final and perhaps most significant section of the book, Young details the assessment and intervention aspects of his schema-focused model. Because the primary goal of assessment is to determine the predominant EMSs of the client, Young outlines an eight-step evaluation procedure and guides the reader through each step by way of a case example. EMS assessment is multifaceted and includes the use of questionnaire data (Lazarus' Multimodal Life History Questionnaire and Young's own Schema Questionnaire); procedures for "triggering" schemas both within and outside of sessions; ways of educating the client about schemas; techniques for identifying schema maintenance, avoidance, and compensation behaviors; and a methodology for distinguishing among primary, secondary, and associated schemas. Young presents a wealth of applied information at this juncture and does an excellent job of bringing the material to life through the case illustration and accompanying summary tables and appendices. Particularly noteworthy is the "Client's Guide to Schema-Focused Therapy" (Appendix D) which is designed to be used as a handout for orienting clients to the schemafocused approach. …

Influence of adult courtship experience on the development of sexual preferences in zebra finch males

Young zebra finch, Taeniopygia guttata castanotis, males were raised by Bengalese finch, Lonchura striata, foster parents until day 35, 40 or 50 of age, respectively. Following isolation until day 100, about half of the birds in each age group were tested for their preference for Bengalese or zebra finch females in two double-choice tests (pretests). After breeding experience with a conspecific female for 7 months, their sexual preferences were re-tested in two series of five double-choice tests (post-tests), one series 14 days after breeding experience, the other 7–12 months later. Preferences established during early development were changed by breeding experience. However, this change in preference was suppressed by preceding short phases of courtship experience with the foster parent species (during the pretests) after isolation. The same results were obtained by double-choice tests of the same birds 7–12 months later, demonstrating that the acquired preferences are quite stable. Large individual differences in the preferences of the birds may be caused by as yet unknown, subtle differences in rearing conditions. It is proposed that the preferences acquired during early development have to be stabilized by courtship experience. If the adequate object for courting is replaced by another one, a new preference may emerge. The extremely short time which is needed for consolidation may be explained by the high arousal level during pretests.

PET Findings in Panic, Anxiety, and Phobic Disorders

AbstractBlood flow and glucose metabolism are the principal indicators used in studies of diffuse or local brain activity in anxiety and anxiety disorders. Respiratory alkalosis due to hyperventillation causes powerful diffuse cerebral vasoconstriction. This complicates the study of blood flow in anxiety. It is not clear whether it also complicates the study of glucose metabolism. Most evidence suggests that anxiety, arousal, or stress leads to diffuse increases in brain activity, provided that the effect of hyperventillation is controlled, although a few reports have suggested a decrease, especially at high arousal levels, even without hyperventillation. Localized increases have been reported in the temporal lobes, occipital cortex, in the vicinity of the insula or lateral putamen, in or near the superior colliculus, in or near the left anterior cerebellar vermis, in the right cerebral hemisphere, and in the right para-hippocampal region. None of the localized fine lings has been strictly replicated. Man...

Arousal and individual differences in sport

This paper reviews a programme of research, carried out by the authors, into psychological factors in competitive squash. The research was based on the orthogonal model of stress and arousal; Mackay, Cox, Burrows and Lazzerini (1978) and Apter's (1982) reversal theory. These two approaches, which both consider arousal in relation to other psychological states, are presented here as alternatives to optimal arousal theory. Research participants completed a number of questionnaires, including personality and attentional style inventories, and their psychological responses to task performance and competetive play were monitored using state measures. The results suggested that all the players studied, irrespective of their level of skill and later success, entered games with high levels of arousal, but did not necessarily experience these high levels as ‘stressful’ or show obvious signs of anxiety. ‘Winners’ showed slightly higher and more stable levels of arousal across games than ‘losers’ who showed significant decrease in arousal as their lack of success became more apparent, and this was associated with increased feelings of stress. The results also indicated significant differences in extraversion and neuroticism between playing ability and success levels. Skilled and novice players were found to have similar attentional strategies, which were different from their moderately skilled colleagues. The results are discussed in terms of their importance in the understanding of the psychological processes involved in successful squash.

Biofeedback for Disorders of Initiating and Maintaining Sleep

Sleep disturbances are a frequent reason for pediatric consultation. When the disturbance persists in the form of delays in entering or maintaining sleep (DIMS), a vicious cycle develops. As part of the cycle, vigilance or arousal occurs, further inhibiting sleep occurrence. Persistent DIMS requires treatment to interrupt this self-perpetuating sequence. Interruption requires reduction in psychophysiological arousal and deconditioning of the events surrounding sleep. Electromyographic (EMG) and thermal biofeedback in conjunction with relaxation training were used with three children who maintained high levels of arousal resulting from stresses common to their developmental stages. Within seven sessions, all three patients showed attenuation of arousal and symptom abatement marked by uninterrupted sleep.

Cognition and mood in relation to the performance of squash tasks

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the role of cognition and mood in the performance of squash tasks, with particular reference to attention and self-reported arousal and stress. Volunteer male subjects ( n = 40), divided into three ability groups, ‘skilled’, ‘average’ and ‘novice’, were required to perform two squash tasks with different degrees of difficulty. Order of presentation of the tasks was controlled. Results indicated that subjects completing the easier squash task first performed better on the subsequent difficult task than those subjects who completed the more difficult task first. No differences in scores across tasks were found for subjects completing the tasks in reverse order. Performance was related to level of skill. Furthermore, significant differences in attentional style were revealed when average subjects were compared with skilled and novice players. Skilled players were also found to exhibit significantly different personality characteristics from novice players. Specifically, skilled players exhibited higher levels of extraversion and appeared less neurotic. For the average and novice groups, reports of high levels of stress accompanied those of high levels of arousal and these remained constant throughout the experiment. By contrast, for the skilled group low levels of stress accompanied high levels of arousal. The results are discussed in terms of the effects of these cognitive and mood factors on performance and a suggested direction for future research is offered.

Social functioning in schizophrenia

The association between electrodermal arousal and social functioning was investigated. It was predicted that poor social functioning would be associated with higher levels of arousal. Patients were tested for a 15 minute period without their relative and for 15 minutes with their relative present. The prediction received some support from the results in that three subscales of the Social Adjustment Scale (SAS) showed a significant association between lower social functioning and higher arousal. This association showed a trend towards significance in the SAS Overall Score. When patients with high EE and low EE relatives were analysed separately, significant associations were only found for the high EE group. These results were interpreted as giving some support to the hypothesis that patients who are functioning poorly have relatively stable high levels of arousal.