Altitude Training Research Articles

Training at moderate altitude improves submaximal but not maximal performance-related parameters in elite rowers.

Maximal oxygen consumption (V̇O2max), physiological thresholds, and hemoglobin mass are strong predictors of endurance performance. High values of V̇O2max, maximal aerobic power (MAP), and power output at anaerobic thresholds are key variables in elite rowers. Endurance athletes often use altitude training as a strategy to improve performance. However, no clear evidence exists that training at natural altitude enhances sea-level performance in elite rowers. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of altitude training on rowing-performance parameters at sea level. The study was conducted on eleven rowers (Six females, five males) from the Chilean National Team during a 3-week moderate altitude training (∼2,900 m. a.s.l.) under the live high-train high (LHTH) model. It included a rowing ergometer maximal incremental test and blood analysis (pre and post-altitude). Gas exchange analysis was performed to measure V̇O2max, ventilatory thresholds (VTs) and rowing economy/efficiency (ECR/GE%). LHTL training improves performance-related variables at sea level (V̇Emax: 3.3% (95% CI, 1.2–5.5); hemoglobin concentration ([Hb]): 4.3% (95% CI, 1.7–6.9); hematocrit (%): 4.5% (95% CI, 0.9–8.2); RBC (red blood cells) count: 5.3% (95% CI, 2.3–8.2); power at VT2: 6.9% (95% CI, 1.7–12.1), V̇EVT2: 6.4% (95% CI, 0.4–12.4); power at VT1: 7.3% (95% CI, 1.3–13.3), V̇EVT1: 8.7% (95% CI, 1.6–15.8)) and economy/efficiency-related variables (ECRVT2: 5.3% (95% CI, −0.6 to −10.0); GE(%): 5.8% (95% CI, 0.8–10.7)). The LHTH training decreased breathing economy at MAP (−2.8% (95% CI, 0.1–5.6)), pVT2 (−9.3% (95% CI, −5.9 to −12.7)), and pVT1 (−9.3% (95% CI, −4.1 to −14.4)). Non-significant changes were found for V̇O2max and MAP. This study describes the effects of a 3-week moderate altitude (LHTH training) on performance and economy/efficiency-related variables in elite rowers, suggesting that it is an excellent option to induce positive adaptations related to endurance performance.

Editorial – Contemporary Use of Altitude Training to Reach New Heights

Editorial – Contemporary Use of Altitude Training to Reach New Heights

INFLUÊNCIA DA VARIAÇÃO DE ALTITUDE NO DESEMPENHO ATLÉTICO EM CORREDORES DE LONGA DISTÂNCIA

ABSTRACT Introduction: The academic community has demonstrated the link of athletic performance in track and field with critical factors of sports training, including the psychology of competition. Recently, research has been verified that athletic performance is also related to altitude, weather, ambiance, and the timing of the competition. There are no studies to provide theoretical and practical training experience in the regional environment of Ganzhou. Objective: This paper analyzes the influence of altitude training in professional performance athletes. Concurrently, analysis of the physiological and biochemical indicators of the athletes is performed. Methods: Several long-distance runners had an 8-week altitude training. Analyzed the physiological and biochemical indicators of the athletes before and after the training. At the same time, perform mathematical-statistical analysis on the performance of long-distance runners before and after training. Results: After altitude training, hemoglobin and red blood cells showed a significant decrease (P<0.01). After training, athletes’ performance improved considerably (P<0.01). Conclusion: Training at different altitudes may promote an ascending curve in the athletes’ performance until a plateau in the fourth week of training. Evidence Level II; Therapeutic Studies - Investigating the result.

English

Heart rate variability (HRV) is a tool capable of analysing and assessing the vegetative activity of the heart in various activities and situations. It consists of measuring the time that elapses between every two heartbeats over a period of time and expressing it in terms of mathematical and statistical equations. Other authors have analysed the influence of different stressors on HRV. In this work we are looking for the action of normobaric hypoxia (NH) on HRV. NH consists of breathing oxygen-depleted air simulating altitude training. The aim of the study is to determine the influence of HN on the time and frequency domains of HRV. We subjected 13 healthy subjects (recreational athletes) to two HN sessions. We used the iAltitude Trainer v2.7® simulator. The first was a hypoxia tolerance test (HTT) (10 minutes, 11% O2, equivalent to 5050m) and the second was an intermittent exposure (HNI) (14% O2, 3250m) in which periods of 4 minutes of hypoxia alternated with 4 minutes of normoxia for 64 minutes. For HRV analysis, a Polar H10® heart rate monitor, the HRV-elite® application and the Kubios-Standard® software were used. Data were taken 5 minutes before and after each session, and these values were compared using the Student´s t- test for paired data. None of the variables in the time (RRmean, SDNN, rMSSD, pNN50) or frequency (VLF, LF, HF, LF/HF) domains of HRV showed significant changes in either situation. HN did not cause changes in the stress levels of these subjects and was well tolerated, clinically and electrocardiographically. A tolerance test and a session of exposure to intermittent normobaric hypoxia are not sufficient stimuli to cause acute changes in HRV.

Predicting an Athlete’s Physiological and Haematological Response to Live High-Train High Altitude Training Using a Hypoxic Sensitivity Test

Predicting an Athlete’s Physiological and Haematological Response to Live High-Train High Altitude Training Using a Hypoxic Sensitivity Test

Effects of Moderate Altitude Training Combined with Moderate or High-altitude Residence.

We aimed to identify potential physiological and performance differences of trained cross-country skiers (V˙o2max=60±4 ml ∙ kg-1 ∙ min-1) following two, 3-week long altitude modalities: 1) training at moderate altitudes (600-1700 m) and living at 1500 m (LMTM;N=8); and 2) training at moderate altitudes (600-1700 m) and living at 1500 m with additional nocturnal normobaric hypoxic exposures (FiO2 =0.17;LHTM; N=8). All participants conducted the same training throughout the altitude training phase and underwent maximal roller ski trials and submaximal cyclo-ergometery before, during and one week after the training camps. No exercise performance or hematological differences were observed between the two modalities. The average roller ski velocities were increased one week after the training camps following both LMTM (p=0.03) and LHTM (p=0.04) with no difference between the two (p=0.68). During the submaximal test, LMTM increased the Tissue Oxygenation Index (11.5±6.5 to 1.0±8.5%; p=0.04), decreased the total hemoglobin concentration (15.1±6.5 to 1.7±12.9 a.u.;p=0.02), and increased blood pH (7.36±0.03 to 7.39±0.03;p=0.03). On the other hand, LHTM augmented minute ventilation (76±14 to 88±10 l·min-1;p=0.04) and systemic blood oxygen saturation by 2±1%; (p=0.02) with no such differences observed following the LMTM. Collectively, despite minor physiological differences observed between the two tested altitude training modalities both induced comparable exercise performance modulation.

Adequacy of an Altitude Fitness Program (Living and Training) plus Intermittent Exposure to Hypoxia for Improving Hematological Biomarkers and Sports Performance of Elite Athletes: A Single-Blind Randomized Clinical Trial.

Athletes incorporate altitude training programs into their conventional training to improve their performance. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of an 8-week altitude training program that was supplemented with intermittent hypoxic training (IHE) on the blood biomarkers, sports performance, and safety profiles of elite athletes. In a single-blind randomized clinical trial that followed the CONSORT recommendations, 24 male athletes were randomized to an IHE group (HA, n = 12) or an intermittent normoxia group (NA, n = 12). The IHE consisted of 5-min cycles of hypoxia–normoxia with an FIO2 of between 10–13% for 90 min every day for 8 weeks. Hematological (red blood cells, hemoglobin, hematocrit, hematocrit, reticulated hemoglobin, reticulocytes, and erythropoietin), immunological (leukocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes), and renal (urea, creatinine, glomerular filtrate, and total protein) biomarkers were assessed at the baseline (T1), day 28 (T2), and day 56 (T3). Sports performance was evaluated at T1 and T3 by measuring quadriceps strength and using three-time trials over the distances of 60, 400, and 1000 m on an athletics track. Statistically significant increases (p < 0.05) in erythropoietin, reticulocytes, hemoglobin, and reticulocyte hemoglobin were observed in the HA group at T3 with respect to T1 and the NA group. In addition, statistically significant improvements (p < 0.05) were achieved in all performance tests. No variations were observed in the immunological or renal biomarkers. The athletes who were living and training at 1065 m and were supplemented with IHE produced significant improvements in their hematological behavior and sports performance with optimal safety profiles.

EFFECTS OF INTERMITTENT HYPOXIA EXPOSURE ON LEUKOCYTE COUNT AND ANXIETY IN EXERCISE-INDUCED HYPOHEMOGLOBIN RATS

BackgroundHypoxia training is an effective method and tool widely used in sports training. Altitude training (hypoxia training) has been widely used by athletes to improve their aerobic capacity. Hypoxia can induce gene expression regulated by hypoxia inducible factor (HIF), then stimulate the production of erythropoietin (EPO), and finally promote the synthesis of hemoglobin. In the process of hypoxic training, the body is under the dual stimulation of hypoxic environment and exercise, which has a significant impact on peripheral blood immune cells, while high-intensity incremental load exercise in hypoxic environment will greatly change the level of psychological stress. To study the effects of intermittent hypoxic stimulation on leukocytes and psychological stress in exercise-induced low hemoglobin rats, so as to provide reference for the selection of high-intensity hypoxic training mode.Participants and Methods60 6-week-old healthy male SD rats underwent 6-week incremental load running to establish exercise-induced low globulin model. Rats in each group were exposed to hypoxia for 1 hour, 2 hours and (1 + 1) hours at intervals of (1 + 1) hours and (1 + 1) hours in the atmospheric hypoxia chamber. In the artificial atmospheric anoxic environment, the anoxic concentration is controlled at about 14.5%. In addition to intermittent hypoxic exposure, rats were free to move in an additional compartment normoxia environment for 6 days per week for 3 weeks. After 3 weeks, the erythrocyte (RBC), hemoglobin (HB), erythrocyte pressure (HCT), total leukocyte (WBC), neutrophil (neut), lymphocyte (lymph), monocyte (mono), eosinophil (aacidphil) and basophil (basophil) counts of exercise-induced hemoglobin hypoglobulin rats were measured, and the stress state of rats was observed and compared with that of normoxia recovery group. At the same time, there is a very significant positive correlation between state anxiety and trait anxiety. The anxiety component of mouse characteristics plays an important role in the generation of foreign language learning anxiety. Studies have shown that rat anxiety and activity efficacy can be used as comprehensive variables to measure rat state.ResultsAfter 1 hour, 2 hours and (1 + 1) hours of hypoxia exposure, the levels of hemoglobin, erythrocyte and HCT in the recovery group were significantly higher than those in the normoxia recovery group (P < 0.05, P < 0.01), and the leukocyte count in the hemoglobin inhibition model group was significantly lower than that in the control group (P < 0.01). Comparing three different hypoxia exposure modes, the (1 + 1) hour hypoxia exposure recovery group was more effective in preventing exercise-induced hypohemoglobin. Among the three types of hypoxia exposure, the leukocyte count in the 2-hour hypoxia exposure recovery group was significantly lower than that in the normoxia recovery group (P < 0.05), and there was no significant difference among other groups (P > 0.05). Except that there was no significant difference between the pre-test (M = 3.139, SD = 0.858) and post test (M = 3.750, SD = 0.996) scores of the “self-efficacy dimension of feeling positive emotions”, the subjects in the experimental group were pre-test (M = 3.250, SD = 0.684) and post test (m = 4.333, SD = 1.172) and pre-test (M = 2.528, SD = 0.540) and post test (M = 3.278, SD = 1.099) of the “self-efficacy dimension of feeling positive emotions” There were significant differences in the pre-test (M = 2.778, SD = 0.770) and post-test (M = 3.278, SD = 1.099) and the total score of emotion regulation self-efficacy (M = 35.083, SD = 5.931) and post-test (M = 43.917, SD = 8.806), and the post-test score was significantly higher than the pre-test score. That is, through intervention training, the scores of subjects in these dimensions have been significantly improved.ConclusionHypoxia exposure can promote erythropoiesis and help to recover from exercise-induced hypoglycemia, while low-dose intermittent hypoxia exposure has little effect on immune function, and multiple low-dose hypoxia exposure has little effect on the level of psychological stress. The research results can be applied to the practice of sports training and improve the performance of sports training. Its mechanism needs to be further studied.AcknowledgementsSupported by the Science and Technology Fund of Guizhou Province (No. LKA 201807).

Whole-Blood and Peripheral Mononuclear Cell Transcriptional Response to Prolonged Altitude Exposure in Well-Trained Runners.

Recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEpo) abuse by athletes threatens the integrity of sport. Due to the overlap in physiological response to rHuEpo and altitude exposure, it remains difficult to differentiate changes in hematological variables caused by rHuEpo or altitude, and therefore, other molecular methods to enhance anti-doping should be explored. To identify the hematological and transcriptomic response to prolonged altitude exposure typical of practices used by elite athletes. Longitudinal study. University of Cape Town and Altitude Training Centre in Ethiopia. Fourteen well-trained athletes sojourned to an altitude training camp in Sululta, Ethiopia (∼2400-2500 m above sea level) for 27 days. Blood samples were taken before arrival, 24 hours, and 9, 16, and 24 days after arrival at altitude in addition to 24 hours and 6, 13, and 27 days upon return to sea level. Blood samples were analyzed for hemoglobin concentration, hematocrit, and reticulocyte percentage. The transcriptomic response in whole blood and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were analyzed using gene expression microarrays. A unique set of 29 and 10 genes were identified to be commonly expressed at every altitude time point in whole blood and PBMC, respectively. There were no genes identified upon return to sea level in whole blood, and only one gene within PBMC. The current study has identified a series of unique genes that can now be integrated with genes previously validated for rHuEpo abuse, thereby enabling the differentiation of rHuEpo from altitude exposure.

How do world class top 5 Giro d'Italia finishers train? A qualitative multiple case study.

The aim of this study was to describe individual training strategies in preparation to Giro d'Italia of three world class road cyclists who achieved a top 5 in the general classification. Day-to-day power meter training and racing data of three road cyclists (age: 26, 27, 25 years; relative maximum oxygen consumption: 81, 82, 80 ml·min-1 ·kg-1 ; relative 20-min record power output: 6.6, 6.6, 6.4W kg-1 ) of the 22 weeks (December-May) leading up to the top 5 in Giro d'Italia general classification were retrospectively analyzed. Weekly volume and intensity distribution were considered. Cyclists completed 17, 22, 29 races, trained averagely for 19.7 (7.9), 16.2 (7.0), 14.7 (6.2) hours per week, with a training intensity distribution of 91.3-6.5-2.2, 83.6-10.6-5.8, 86.7-8.9-4.4 in zone 1-zone 2-zone 3 before the Giro d'Italia. Two cyclists spent 55 and 39 days at altitude, one did not attend any altitude camp. Cyclists adopted an overall pyramidal intensity distribution with a relevant increase in high-intensity volume and polarization index in races weeks. Tapering phases seem to be dictated by race schedule instead of literature prescription, with no strength training performed by the three cyclists throughout the entire periodization.

Altitude differentially alters the force-velocity relationship after 3 weeks of power-oriented resistance training in elite judokas

ABSTRACT This study investigated the effects of a 3-week power-oriented resistance training programme performed at moderate altitude on the lower-limb maximal theoretical power and force-velocity (F-V) imbalance of elite judokas. Twenty-two elite male judokas were randomly assigned to either a hypobaric hypoxia or normoxia group. Mechanical outputs from an incremental loaded countermovement jump test were assessed at sea level, before and after training, and 1 week later. Results indicated an increase in the maximal theoretical force and a reduction in the F-V imbalance both at moderate altitude and sea level. Altitude training induced additional benefits when compared to sea level for F-V imbalance (8.4%; CI: 0.3, 17.3%), maximal theoretical power (2.09 W·kg−1; CI: 0.13, 4.52 W·kg−1) and force (1.32 N·kg−1; CI: −0.12, 2.96 N·kg−1), jump height (3.24 cm; CI: 2.02, 4.80 cm) and optimal maximal theoretical force (1.61 N·kg−1; CI: 0.06, 3.60 N·kg−1) and velocity (0.08 m·s−1; CI: 0.00, 0.17 m·s−1) after the training period. The hypoxia group achieved their best results immediately after the training period, while the normoxia group achieved them one week later. These results suggest that a power-oriented resistance training programme carried out at moderate altitude accelerates and improves the gains in lower-limb muscle power, while minimizing lower-limb imbalances. Therefore, it seems appropriate to compete immediately after the return to sea level and/or use altitude training as a tool to improve muscle power levels of athletes without tapering goals, especially in highly trained power athletes, since their window of adaptation for further power enhancement is smaller. Highlights A 3-week power-oriented resistance training programme improved lower-limb mechanical outputs of elite judokas both at moderate altitude and sea level; training at moderate altitude increases and accelerates these improvements, reducing athletes’ imbalances. It may be optimal for judokas to compete immediately after the return to sea level and/or use altitude training as a tool to improve muscle power levels of athletes without tapering goals, especially in highly trained power athletes, since their window of adaptation for further power enhancement is attenuated. Athletes should ensure they possess adequate strength levels before employing a power-oriented training programme to potentiate further improvements in muscle power.

Differences in stress response between two altitudes assessed by salivary cortisol levels within circadian rhythms in long-distance runners

There are conflicting reports regarding the efficacy of cortisol as a stress marker in altitude training due to the influence of the circadian rhythm. This study aimed to verify whether the automated measurement of salivary cortisol concentration via sequential sampling could detect the differences in exercise stress between two altitudes. We enrolled 12 elite female long-distance runners living near sea level. For the first higher-altitude camp, the runners lived at 1800 m and trained at 1700 m for 7 days. For the second lower-altitude camp, they lived at 1550 m and trained at 1300 m for 7 days. Their saliva was sequentially collected on the last 2 days during each camp which involved different intensity exercises in the morning and afternoon. The salivary cortisol concentrations were measured using electrochemiluminescence immunoassay. Before dinner, the basal salivary cortisol concentrations were significantly higher in the higher-altitude camp. The rate of change in the salivary cortisol concentration during the morning exercise was significantly higher in the higher-altitude camp than in lower-altitude camp (p = 0.028) despite the same exercise programs and intensities. Salivary cortisol level measurements during the athletes' circadian rhythms could detect the differences in acclimatization and exercise stress between two altitudes.

The influence of altitude training on the manifestation of muscle force in the lower limbs and aerobic endurance on students specializing in ski

Abstract Aim and purpose : It has been widely accepted in the athletic community that altitude training can increase performance at sea level, therefore this study aims to analyze the influence of altitude training on the manifestation of muscle strength in the lower limbs and aerobic endurance in students participating at in-depth training course in a branch of sports- skiing, on the “living high-training high” model. Material : This study included 9 students from the Physical Education and Sports Faculty of Timisoara, who took the in-depth training course in a branch of sports- skiing, taking part in the program and activities specific to this course, as well as in the training carried out at altitude. Method : The batch was evaluated in two moments (T0 and T1), using the following assessment tests: Yo -Yo, Roman seat in isometry, high jump evaluated via the OPTOJUMP device, long jump test. The data was processed in Excel (v2205) and the statistical processing was performed using the Student T-test. It was considered that the results are statistically significant for values of p &lt;0.05. Results : The progress recorded was quantified by normalizing the absolute values and was expresse d as a percentage as follows: Yo-Yo= -1% ± 0.08 STD; RS= + 168% ± 1.26STD; HJ-Squat Jump= -4% ± 0.16STD; HJ- countermovement jump= -2% ± 0.14STD; HJ- countermovement jump-free arms = + 2% ± 0.14STD; LJ= + 6% ± 0.04STD; LJ SLJ R= + 9% ± 0.08STD; LJ SLJ L= + 10% ± 0.08STD. Conclusions : From the evaluations performed at sea level, at T0 and T1, a noticeable improvement in the muscular strength of the lower limbs has resulted via the following tests: the Roman seat in isometry, long jump with bilateral support, long jump with unilateral support on either the left or right side; registering a significant statistical (p). However, there was no significant improvement noticed on the rest of the tests.

Monitoring Acclimatization and Training Responses Over 17-21 Days at 1,800 m in Elite Cross-Country Skiers and Biathletes.

ObjectiveTo monitor the daily variations and time course of changes in selected variables during a 17–21-day altitude training camp at 1,800 m in a group of elite cross-country skiers (9 women, 12 men) and biathletes (7 women, 4 men).MethodsAmong other variables, resting peripheral oxygen saturation (SpO2rest), resting heart rate (HRrest) and urine specific gravity (USG) were monitored daily at altitude, while illness symptoms were monitored weekly. Before and after the camp, body composition (i.e., lean and fat mass) and body mass were assessed in all athletes, while roller-skiing speed at a blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol·L−1 (Speed@4mmol) was assessed in the biathletes only.ResultsNeither SpO2rest, HRrest nor USG changed systematically during the camp (p > 0.05), although some daily time points differed from day one for the latter two variables (p < 0.05). In addition, body composition and body mass were unchanged from before to after the camp (p > 0.05). Eleven out of 15 illness episodes were reported within 4 days of the outbound or homebound flight. The five biathletes who remained free of illness increased their Speed@4mmol by ~ 4% from before to after the camp (p = 0.031).ConclusionsThe present results show that measures typically recommended to monitor acclimatization and responses to altitude in athletes (e.g., SpO2rest and HRrest) did not change systematically over time. Further research is needed to explore the utility of these and other measures in elite endurance athletes at altitudes typical of competition environments.

Effects of a Respiratory Resistance Mask on Forced Expiratory Volume at 1s (FEV1), Forced Vital Capacity (FVC) and the Ratio of FEV1/FVC Lung Function following High Intensity Training (HIT)

Training masks (TMs), marketed as simulated altitude training devices, suggest increased workout capacity, intensity tolerance and recovery. The claim is that the training mask improves respiratory power and breathing mechanics by strengthening the respiratory muscles through breathing resistance provided by the TM. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of a commercially manufactured TM in conjunction with bicycle ergometry, high intensity training (HIT) on selected lung function parameters. Volunteers (N=16) participated in this study and were randomly assigned to an experimental or control group. The experimental group wore the TM with progressive increased respiratory resistance and the control group wore the TM with no respiratory resistance. To determine lung function, pre- and post-test assessments consisted of forced expiratory volume at 1s (FEV1), forced vital capacity (FVC), the ratio of FEV1/FVC. Additionally, to determine the TMs effectiveness of maximal oxygen consumption pre- and post-time to failure during a maximum treadmill test was performed. Training was completed on a cycle ergometer on 3d/wk for 4 wks. Participants exercised at 85% of HRmax with a pedal rate of 100-120 rpm at individually set resistance levels. Training sessions consisted of 10 bouts of 30s exercise followed by 30s of active recovery for a total time of 10 minutes. The respiratory resistance for the experimental group progressively increased over the training period. Repeated measures ANOVAs yielded significant between group difference in FVC (p = 0.02) but not for FEV1 or maximum treadmill time. In conclusion, TMs in combination with HIT failed to improve lung function but created sufficient resistance to strengthen the muscles in respiratory ventilation.

The Lighter Side of Aviation Medicine during World War 2: Aero Medical Training Cartoons

The air war of 1939‐1945 was the world’s first high‐speed, high‐altitude air war. The limiting factor in aerial combat was no longer the warplane’s performance, but rather, the aviator’s limited tolerances for exposure to the rarefied, anoxic, subzero atmosphere. Aviators flew unpressurized planes to altitudes of 20,000‐35,000 feet during reconnaissance and bombing missions to evade enemy interceptors and anti‐aircraft fire. At altitude, warfighter performance could be impaired by anoxia, decompression sickness, hypothermia &amp; frostbite. Escaping from a disabled aircraft at high‐altitude also presented physiological challenges, including anoxia, frostbite, and parachute opening shock G‐forces. High‐performance fighter aircraft also subjected pilots to G‐forces during violent dogfighting maneuvers that left them temporarily blinded and unconscious from reduced brain blood flow. One of the challenges for the “medical men” was teaching young airmen, from all walks of life, the fundamentals of aviation physiology and how to use their oxygen equipment in this new physiological air war. This task fell in large part to the physiologists of the U. S. Army Air Forces (USAAF) and U. S. Navy (USN). The USAAF used training cartoons known as Thought Pictures to illustrate conceptually difficult topics in anatomy, physiology, and the physics of the atmosphere (Figs. 1 &amp; 2). Thought Pictures, drawn by the artist/author Eric Sloane (1905‐1985), were combined with concisely written text in the popular training manual, Your Body in Flight (1943, 1944), which was published by the Aero Medical Laboratory at Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio. The USAAF also published aero medical training cartoons in Air Force Magazine.In the USN, a popular training cartoon character was the accident prone, bumbling airman, Dilbert Groundloop,drawn by satirist Robert C. Osborn (1904–1994). The USN Bureau of Medicine also highlighted important aero medical issues using comical illustrations in the widely distributed Senseseries; e.g. Oxygen Sense, High Altitude Sense, “G” Sense&amp; Parachute Sense. Likewise, the School of Aviation Medicine, U. S. Naval Air Station, Pensacola, FL, published altitude training cartoons in CONTACTmagazine. Even Boeing and Lockheed aircraft manufacturing companies published humorous cartoons in Boeing News Magazine and Hangar Flying to reinforce the medical dangers of altitude flying to their test pilots and flight engineers. Finally, those mischievous pixies of the air, the Aero Medical Gremlins, proved to be another valuable training tool (see author's Aviation Gremlins abstract). Together, these humorous illustrations enabled America’s aviation physiologists and flight surgeons to drive home the serious nature of the physiological challenges of combat flying to aviators, while at the same time, presenting difficult material in an easily remembered format that was also amusing and entertaining for airmen soon to be facing life or death on every mission. Aero medical cartoons worked so well as a training tool that interrogation of German aviation physiologists at the end of the war revealed a professional admiration by them for the depth of understanding that American aviators had regarding the physiological effects of high‐altitude and the physiologic principles underlying their protective flight gear.

A case study on altitude training and its effects of volly ball players

Altitude training is to enhance training performance. The fundamental theory behind altitude training in that, by exposing an athlete to an environmental that is low in oxygen, (Hypoxic), the body will eventually adapt and improve its efficiency (acclimatized). In volley ball it is necessary to clarify the effect of altitude training on hematological variables, increased oxygen intake, fitness factor, molecular adaptations, and genetic adaptations acclimatization. The main objective of altitude training and team sport is to present cutting –edge research on the basic &amp; applied aspects of altitude training to enhance match related performance in team sport. Exercise and training in hypoxic environment includes neuromuscular metabolic and cardiac vascular adaption. Despite the limited research on the effects of altitude (or hypoxic) training interventions on team-sport performance, players from all around the world engaged in these sports are now using altitude training more than ever before. In March 2013, an Altitude Training and Team Sports conference was held in Doha, Qatar, to establish a forum of research and practical insights into this rapidly growing field.

The Impact of a 14-Day Altitude Training Camp on Olympic-Level Open-Water Swimmers' Sleep.

Despite the common belief that sleep quality at altitude is poor, the scientific evidence to support this notion is still modest. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to evaluate possible changes of actigraphy-based and subjective sleep parameters in a group of elite open-water swimmers during a 14-day altitude training camp (ATC) at 1500 m. The study subjects were five Olympic-level open-water swimmers (mean age: 25.0 ± 3.2 years; 3 females and 2 males). All subjects wore a wrist activity monitor and filled a sleep diary for 18 consecutive nights, 4 nights before and 14 nights during ATC. The data were then analyzed at four different time points: before ATC (PRE), the first two days of ATC (T1), and after one (T2) and two weeks of ATC (T3). Training load, assessed as the covered distance (km), session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE), and heart rate (HR), was monitored during the week before and the first and second week of ATC. No significant differences in objective and subjective scores of sleep quality were detected, whereas the sleep onset time (p = 0.018; η2p = 0.83, large) and sleep offset time (p < 0.001; η2p = 0.95, large) significantly differed among PRE, T1, T2, and T3: elite athletes started to sleep and woke up ≃ 1 h earlier the first two days of ATC compared to PRE (sleep onset time: p = 0.049; sleep offset time: p = 0.016). Further, an increase in the training volume during the two weeks of the ATC was observed, with the most time spent in a low-intensity regime and an increase in time spent in a high-intensity regime compared to PRE. Sleep quality was not negatively influenced by a 14-day altitude training camp at 1500 m in a group of Olympic-level elite swimmers despite an increase in perceived exertion during training sessions. Nonetheless, early sleep onset and sleep offset times were observed for the first two nights of ATC: elite athletes started to sleep and woke up ≃ 1 h earlier compared to the baseline nights.

RNA Sequencing of Whole Blood Defines the Signature of High Intensity Exercise at Altitude in Elite Speed Skaters.

Although high altitude training has been increasingly popular among endurance athletes, the molecular and cellular bases of this adaptation remain poorly understood. We aimed to define the underlying physiological changes and screen for potential biomarkers of adaptation using transcriptional profiling of whole blood. Seven elite female speed skaters were profiled on the 18th day of high-altitude adaptation. Whole blood RNA-seq before and after an intense 1 h skating bout was used to measure gene expression changes associated with exercise. In order to identify the genes specifically regulated at high altitudes, we have leveraged the data from eight previously published microarray datasets studying blood expression changes after exercise at sea level. Using cell type-specific signatures, we were able to deconvolute changes of cell type abundance from individual gene expression changes. Among these were PHOSPHO1, with a known role in erythropoiesis, and MARC1 with a role in endogenic NO metabolism. We find that platelet and erythrocyte counts uniquely respond to altitude exercise, while changes in neutrophils represent a more generic marker of intense exercise. Publicly available data from both single cell atlases and exercise-related blood profiling dramatically increases the value of whole blood RNA-seq for the dynamic evaluation of physiological changes in an athlete’s body.

The Impact of Four High-Altitude Training Camps on the Aerobic Capacity of a Short Track PyeongChang 2018 Olympian: A Case Study.

This study characterizes high-altitude training camps and their effect on the aerobic capacity of a Polish national team member (M.W.), who was a participant in the PyeongChang 2018 Winter Olympic Games (body weight: 59.6 kg, body height: 161.0 cm, fat mass: 10.9 kg and 18.3% of fat tissue, fat-free mass: 48.7 kg, muscle mass: 46.3 kg, and BMI = 23.0 kg/m2). The tests were conducted in the periods from April 2018 to September 2018 and April 2019 to September 2019 (period of general and special preparation). The study evaluated aerobic and anaerobic capacity determined by laboratory tests, a cardiopulmonary graded exercise test to exhaustion performed on a cycle ergometer (CPET), and the Wingate anaerobic test. Based on the research, training in hypobaric conditions translated into significant improvements in the skater’s exercise capacity recorded after participating in the Olympic Winter Games in Korea (February 2018). In the analyzed period (2018–2019), there was a significant increase in key parameters of aerobic fitness such as anaerobic threshold power output (AT-PO) [W]—223; power output POmax [W]—299 and AT-PO [W/kg]—3.50; (POmax) [W/kg]—4.69; and AT-VO2 [mL/kg/min]—51.3; VO2max [mL/kg/min]—61.0. The athlete showed high-exercise-induced adaptations and improvements in the aerobic metabolic potential after two seasons, in which four training camps were held in altitude conditions.