High-altitude Plateau Research Articles

The Complete Mitogenome of Elymus sibiricus and Insights Into Its Evolutionary Pattern Based on Simple Repeat Sequences of Seed Plant Mitogenomes.

The most intriguing characteristics of plant mitochondrial genomes (mitogenomes) include their high variation in both sequence and structure, the extensive horizontal gene transfer (HGT), and the important role they play in hypoxic adaptation. However, the investigation of the mechanisms of hypoxic adaptation and HGT in plant mitochondria remains challenging due to the limited number of sequenced mitogenomes and non-coding nature of the transferred DNA. In this study, the mitogenome of Elymus sibiricus (Gramineae, Triticeae), a perennial grass species native to the Qinghai-Tibet plateau (QTP), was de novo assembled and compared with the mitogenomes of eight Gramineae species. The unique haplotype composition and higher TE content compared to three other Triticeae species may be attributed to the long-term high-altitude plateau adaptability of E. sibiricus. We aimed to discover the connection between mitogenome simple sequence repeats (SSRs) (mt-SSRs) and HGT. Therefore, we predicted and annotated the mt-SSRs of E. sibiricus along with the sequencing of 87 seed plants. The clustering result based on all of the predicted compound mitogenome SSRs (mt-c-SSRs) revealed an expected synteny within systematic taxa and also inter-taxa. The mt-c-SSRs were annotated to 11 genes, among which “(ATA)3agtcaagtcaag (AAT)3” occurred in the nad5 gene of 8 species. The above-mentioned results further confirmed the HGT of mitogenomes sequences even among distant species from the aspect of mt-c-SSRs. Two genes, nad4 and nad7, possessed a vast number of SSRs in their intron regions across the seed plant mitogenomes. Furthermore, five pairs of SSRs developed from the mitogenome of E. sibiricus could be considered as potential markers to distinguish between the species E. sibiricus and its related sympatric species E. nutans.

Landslide Extraction from High-Resolution Remote Sensing Imagery Using Fully Convolutional Spectral–Topographic Fusion Network

Considering the complexity of landslide hazards, their manual investigation lacks efficiency and is time-consuming, especially in high-altitude plateau areas. Therefore, extracting landslide information using remote sensing technology has great advantages. In this study, comprehensive research was carried out on the landslide features of high-resolution remote sensing images on the Mangkam dataset. Based on the idea of feature-driven classification, the landslide extraction model of a fully convolutional spectral–topographic fusion network (FSTF-Net) based on a deep convolutional neural network of multi-source data fusion is proposed, which takes into account the topographic factor (slope and aspect) and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) as multi-source data input by which to train the model. In this paper, a high-resolution remote sensing image classification method based on a fully convolutional network was used to extract the landslide information, thereby realizing the accurate extraction of the landslide and surrounding ground-object information. With Mangkam County in the southeast of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau China as the study area, the proposed method was evaluated based on the high-precision digital elevation model (DEM) generated from stereoscopic images of Resources Satellite-3 and multi-source high-resolution remote sensing image data (Beijing-2, Worldview-3, and SuperView-1). Results show that our method had a landslide detection precision of 0.85 and an overall classification accuracy of 0.89. Compared with the latest DeepLab_v3+, our model increases the landslide detection precision by 5%. Thus, the proposed FSTF-Net model has high reliability and robustness.

Long-Term High-Altitude Exposure Does Not Increase the Incidence of Atrial Fibrillation Associated with Organic Heart Diseases.

Wang, Man, Mengxue Liu, Jia Huang, Dan Fan, Shengzhong Liu, Tao Yu, Keli Huang, Xinchuan Wei, and Qian Lei. Long-term high-altitude exposure does not increase the incidence of atrial fibrillation associated with organic heart diseases. High Alt Med Biol. 22:285-292, 2021. Background: Atrial fibrillation (AF) is one of the most common arrhythmias and is associated with several complications following cardiac surgery. However, the differences in the incidence of AF associated with organic heart diseases between highland and lowland populations have not been comprehensively studied. Methods: In this retrospective study, a total of 2,316 highland and lowland patients who underwent cardiac surgery between January 2013 and December 2018 in a single center were enrolled. According to the altitude of residence, patients were divided into high-altitude (>1,500 m) and low-altitude (<1,500 m) groups. A propensity score matching analysis was performed to estimate the association of lifetime high-altitude exposure with AF. Results: Among the enrolled patients, 239 (10.9%) were from a high-altitude plateau, while 1,946 (89.1%) were from a low-altitude area. There were statistical differences in age, gender, European System for Cardiac Operative Risk Evaluation, and other factors, between the two groups (p < 0.05). According to the propensity score, 237 patients in the high-altitude group were successfully matched to 237 patients in the low-altitude group without significant difference in baseline data (p > 0.05). Among the matched patients, 125 patients (26.4%) suffered from AF, with 66 (27.8%) in the high-altitude group and 59 (24.9%) in the low-altitude group. The incidence of AF was statistically similar between the two groups and not significantly influenced by long-term high-altitude exposure (odds ratio 1.07; 95% confidence interval 0.71-1.60, p > 0.05). Conclusion: Long-term high-altitude exposure did not significantly increase the occurrence of AF in patients with organic heart diseases. Clinical Trial No. ChiCTR1900028612.

Population Transcriptomics Reveals Gene Flow and Introgression Between Two Non-sister Alpine Gentians

Distributional shifts driven by Quaternary climatic oscillations have been suggested to cause interspecific hybridization and introgression. In this study, we aimed to test this hypothesis by using population transcriptomes and coalescent modeling of two alpine none-sister gentians. Previous studies suggested that historical hybridizations occurred between Gentiana siphonantha and G. straminea in the high-altitude Qinghai-Tibet Plateau although both species are not sister to each other with the most recent divergence. In the present study, we sequenced transcriptomes of 33 individuals from multiple populations of G. siphonantha and G. straminea. The two species are well delimited by nuclear genomic SNPs while phylogenetic analyses of plastomes clustered one G. straminea individual into the G. siphonantha group. Further population structure analyses of the nuclear SNPs suggested that two populations of G. siphonantha were admixed with around 15% ancestry from G. straminea. These analyses suggested genetic introgressions from G. straminea to G. siphonantha. In addition, our coalescent-based modeling results revealed that gene flow occurred between the two species since Last Glacier Maximum after their initial divergence, which might have leaded to the observed introgressions. Our results underscore the significance of transcriptome population data in determining timescale of interspecific gene flow and direction of the resulting introgression.

An investigation of the influence of ground surface properties and shading on outdoor thermal comfort in a high-altitude residential area

Landscape elements in residential areas can effectively improve the outdoor thermal environment, with different outcomes depending on the climate conditions. This study explores how the ground surface and shading properties affect the outdoor thermal environment in a high-altitude plateau climate where few studies have been conducted. The measurements were conducted during summer and winter in a residential area in Lhasa, Tibet. Without natural shading such as trees, there is a positive correlation between Sky-view factor (SVF) and Physiological equivalent temperature (PET) during winter and a negative correlation during summer. When SVF exceeds 0.65 in summer, it may cause human discomfort. Compared to artificial shading such as a tensioned membrane, deciduous trees are superior at improving human comfort, as they can increase PET by 10.56 °C in winter and decrease it by 9.73 °C in summer. During summer, high-reflection water-permeable bricks can reduce the PET by 1.08 °C, and lawns can reduce the mean radiation temperature (Tmrt) by 1.65 °C; however, the lawns may produce a microclimate with a high air temperature. The results from this paper can be used as a reference for landscape planning and design in residential areas in high-altitude cold-climate regions.

Diversity, distribution and conservation status of the Adder’s-tongue ferns in Goa, India

The cosmopolitan fern genus Ophioglossum (Ophioglossaceae) is distributed from low to high altitude plateaux, coastal plains and forest floors of India. This genus has received special attention from pteridologists worldwide since the discovery that Ophioglossum reticulatum possesses the largest number of chromosomes. There are, however, no reported studies of Ophioglossum in Goa, hence the present investigation was undertaken to study the diversity, distribution and conservation status of Ophioglossum in that state. A total of six species were collected from different localities, of which four (O. nudicaule, O. lusitanicum, O. parvifolium, and O. reticulatum) are reported as new distributional records for Goa State. A detailed morpho-taxonomy, illustration and photographs of all collected species are given, along with a key to the species.

Blastocystis infection and subtype distribution in domestic animals in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Area (QTPA) in China: A preliminary study.

Blastocystis is a common intestinal protozoan parasite of humans and a variety of animal species. To date, the prevalence of Blastocystis and major subtypes distribution in the domestic animals inhabiting in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Area (QTPA) of China is yet poorly studied. In this study, we investigated the distribution and genetic diversity of Blastocystis in seven animal species in QTPA in China. Four hundred and five fresh fecal samples were collected from domestic animals in Qinghai, Yunnan, and Tibet of China and analyzed using nested PCR and SSU rRNA gene sequencing. It was found that the overall prevalence of Blastocystis infection was 40.2% (163/405) in the animals studied. The most predominant subtype of Blastocystis was ST10 (57.7%) followed by ST14 (28.8%) and ST2 (13.5%). These results reveal the epidemiological features of Blastocytis infection in animals in the high altitude plateau area. The finding of presence of ST2 in a number of animal species suggests a zoonotic nature of Blastocystis and might be of importance of public health.

Performance comparison of warm mix asphalt for plateau area

The warm mix asphalt (WMA) technology is commonly applied for highway pavements in high-altitude plateau regions in China, where extreme weather conditions are common. The study is to evaluate the performance of WMA with different additives in the areas. The tests show that all the additives could reduce the viscosity of asphalt binder to reduce the mixing and compacting temperature of asphalt mixture. The solid additives could also decrease the penetration and ductility value, and increase the softening point and the PG high temperature of asphalt binder; therefore, are suitable for improving the high-temperature performance of WMA in the high-temperature regions. However, the surface-active liquid additives are suitable in the plateau areas in low-temperature conditions. The lab data for the Ya-Kang highway pavement to Tibet Plateau show it is suitable to control the mixing temperature at about 20°C lower than the normal hot mix asphalt during the construction period.

Floristic diversity of Anjaneri Hills, Maharashtra, India

High altitude plateaux are found throughout northern Western Ghats. These plateaux harbor a great diversity of monsoon flora and endemism but are highly neglected due to the seasonality and harsh climatic conditions. Anjaneri Hill is an important rock outcrop in northern Western Ghats. It is the type locality of Ceropegia anjanerica. As an attempt to make a floristic inventory of an important area, a preliminary study was undertaken. A total of 385 flowering plants from 68 families have been reported from Anjaneri protected area in the present study, of these 114 are endemics. Out of these 114 species, 81 are endemic to India while 33 taxa are endemic to the Western Ghats. Anjaneri rock outcrop shows great floral diversity due to varied microhabitats. The observations on phenology and adaptive traits were recorded. The data on geology and geomorphology is presented in order to understand the geological nature of the rock outcrop. Intensive study on varied microhabitat is needed for the documentation of floral diversity existing on the Anjaneri Hill.

Enhanced P-glycoprotein expression under high-altitude hypoxia contributes to increased phenytoin levels and reduced clearance in rats

To study the effect of plateau hypoxia on the concentration of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) substrate phenytoin, Wistar rats are randomly divided into the control group and the hypoxic group, including P-gp inhibited groups respectively. Blood, cerebrospinal fluid, brain tissue, and blood-brain barrier were collected in plain areas at an altitude of 1500 m and plateau areas at an altitude of 4010 m. Evans Blue exclusion was used to assess the integrity of the blood-brain barrier. Western blot and qPCR were used to detect changes in P-gp expression. LC-MS/MS was used to determine the concentration of phenytoin in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid. In the high-altitude plateau group, phenytoin AUC0-t, MRT0-t and t1/2 increased significantly by 60%, 48%, and 61%, respectively, and clearance decreased by 67% (p <0.05 for all parameter). The protein expression of P-gp in the blood-brain barrier of the plateau group was up-regulated 1.84 times and the gene expression was up-regulated 2.21 times. The concentrations of phenytoin in the CSF of rats in the plain and high-altitude groups were 864.7 ± 348.3 and 1000±273.9 ng•mL−1, respectively. However, after inhibiting P-gp, the concentration of phenytoin in the CSF decreased significantly. It indicates that the increased expression of P-gp on the blood-brain barrier may lead to an increase in the amount of phenytoin excreted from the blood into the CSF, which may cause neurotoxic side effects. These results demonstrate significant changes in the pharmacokinetics of phenytoin under hypoxic conditions, supporting the need for careful dose titration for drugs with a narrow therapeutic range under high-altitude conditions.

Assessment of the Two Successive GPM-Based V3 and V4 GSMaP Precipitation Products at Multiple Temporal and Spatial Scales Over China

Since the beginning of the global precipitation measurement (GPM) era, the global satellite mapping of precipitation (GSMaP) products underwent a major upgrade on January 2017, when the newest Version 4 (V4) GSMaP products were formally released. In this study, for the first time ever, the error characteristics of the successive Version 3 (V3) and V4 GSMaP products were evaluated at multiple temporal and spatial scales by comparing them to the China daily Precipitation Analysis Products from March 2014 to February 2017. The GSMaP products include the V3 and V4 standard products (MVK_V3 and MVK_V4), the gauge-adjusted standard products (GAU_V3 and GAU_V4), and the V3 near-real-time product (NRT_V3). Both versions of the gauge-adjusted datasets exhibit improvements over their corresponding unadjusted counterparts. With regard to the three-year daily mean precipitation, both gauge-adjusted products have similar spatial precipitation patterns, and the GAU_V4 provides higher precipitation estimates than the GAU_V3 over China. The MVK_V4 generally outperforms the MVK_V3 over the high-altitude Qinghai-Tibetan plateau, the deserts, and the moist southern regions. Elsewhere, the MVK_V4 has a lower performance than the MVK_V3. Based on the seasonal statistics, the V4 GSMaP products are superior to the V3 GSMaP products over China in the winter and the MVK_V4 provides higher precipitation estimates than the MVK_V3 in most areas of China (except for the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau and the deserts) in spring, summer, and autumn. The daily statistics show that the MVK_V4 significantly corrects for the precipitation bias of the MVK_V3 in the western, arid, and high-altitude regions.

Paleolithic occupation of Tibet

Archaeology Human colonization of the high-altitude Tibetan Plateau has generally been thought to have been confined to the past few thousand years of the Holocene. Zhang et al. report an investigation of the Nwya Devu archaeological site in central Tibet, 4600 meters above sea level, with Paleolithic occupation dates of ∼40 thousand to 30 thousand years ago (see the Perspective by Zhang and Dennell). The site has yielded a range of stone tools, indicating the adaptive ability of early modern humans to the harsh environment of the “roof of the world.” The findings also suggest that people from Tibet and Siberia may have interacted at this time. Science , this issue p. [1049][1]; see also p. [992][2] [1]: /lookup/doi/10.1126/science.aat8824 [2]: /lookup/doi/10.1126/science.aav6863

Carbon Gain Limitation Is the Primary Mechanism for the Elevational Distribution Limit of Myriophyllum in the High-Altitude Plateau.

Temperature comprises a major driver for species distribution and physiological processes in alpine plants. For all terrestrial plant species tested to date, elevation associated decreases in temperature have been observed to influence the balance between carbon acquisition and usage; restricting the upper limit of most alpine trees (i.e., treeline). However, such a carbon source-sink balance has not been tested in any alpine aquatic plants, which is an important component of the alpine aquatic ecosystem. The Myriophyllum species inhabits a broad range of habitats across the high-altitude plateau. Three Myriophyllum species (Myriophyllum spicatum, Myriophyllum verticillatum, and Myriophyllum sibiricum) from 12 water bodies at elevational gradients between 2766 and 5111 m were collected in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. The late growing seasonal concentrations of non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) in the leaves were measured to find how high-altitude conditions influence the carbon balance in aquatic plants. Regression tree analysis separated the 12 water bodies into two groups according to water turbidity (seven water bodies with high turbidity and five water bodies with low turbidity). Overall, leaf NSC concentrations (primarily starch) decreased significantly with increasing elevation in widely distributed M. spicatum and M. verticillatum. Regression tree analysis indicated that water turbidity (i.e., shady environment) was a strong determinant of leaf NSC. In the low turbidity group (<3.5 NTU), leaf NSC concentrations decreased with increasing elevation; however, in the high turbidity group (>3.5 NTU), leaf NSC concentrations were low and had no association with elevation. Unlike most recent studies in tree species, which show low temperatures limited growth at high-elevations, our results demonstrated that carbon gain limitation is the primary mechanism for the elevational distribution limit of Myriophyllum species in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Moreover, water turbidity moderated the effects of low temperature by masking the expected carbon limitation trend. Therefore, at least two environmental factors (i.e., temperature and light availability) induced photosynthesis decreases might explain the NSC responses for aquatic plants in response to elevation.

Spatial and temporal variability of grassland yield and its response to climate change and anthropogenic activities on the Tibetan Plateau from 1988 to 2013

Accurate and periodic assessment of grassland yield (GY) is of great importance for the management of high altitude plateau grasslands. The Tibetan Plateau (TP) is a very important pastoral area that provides a microcosm of typical alpine grassland ecosystems. Based on remote sensing data, meteorological datasets and observational plant biomass data, we used the Global Production Efficiency Model and Soil and Atmosphere Model (GLOPEM-CEVSA) to estimate GY and its response to climate change and anthropogenic activities on the TP from 1988 to 2013. We quantitatively analyzed spatiotemporal dynamic changes of GY for four geomorphological divisions and five main grassland types. For the 26 years of the study, average annual total GY was 515.8 kg/ha/yr and gradually decreased from the southeast to the northwest of the TP. Annual GY fluctuated from year to year but had an overall positive trend (4.2 kg/ha/yr). Spatiotemporal variation of GY was greatly influenced by spatial heterogeneity. For the total area, the proportion showing a significant increase in GY was 45.2%, while only 12.6% showed a significant decrease. For the main grassland types, GY of Alpine Meadow was highest and had the highest slope of increase. The pattern of decrease of GY from the southeast to the northwest was predominantly related to climate gradients. Regional correlation analysis indicated that warming temperature promoted positive increase of GY for almost all the region. Annual precipitation was related to a less significant decreasing trend of GY over all the TP apart from an increase of GY in the middle area of the north. The grazing pressure index decreased over the years by control of livestock numbers, the reduction of grazing pressure assisting restoration of alpine grasslands. However, grazing pressure on the TP in 2013 remained too high and overloaded. Nevertheless, grassland protection and restoration projects have mitigated grassland degradation in some areas, promoted grassland restoration, and increased incomes of herdsmen. The study indicates that continuation of these projects is critical for the restoration and sustainable use of the TP grasslands.

On Study of AFFF Performance Parameter in Altitude Low Pressure Environment

Abstract In view of special low pressure environment in high-altitude plateau, the paper carries out simulation and field experiment of AFFF in high-altitude low pressure environment. The results show that: when ambient pressure changes from 101kPa to 24kPa, with the reduction of ambient pressure, the foam expansion of AFFF decreases, and drainage time of AFFF decreases first and increases later; the 59kPa is the extreme point of whole change process and the drainage time of AFFF fire extinguishing agent reaches a minimum under this ambient pressure. During the stage from 101kPa to 59kPa, the drainage time of AFFF decreases with the reduction of ambient pressure. It shows through field test that in the stage from 101 kPa to 59kPa, the performance parameters of AFFF foam are consistent with those in simulation experiment.

Middle and Late Pleistocene glaciations in the southwestern Pamir and their effects on topography

Glacial chronologies provide insight into the evolution of paleo-landscapes, paleoclimate, topography, and the erosion processes that shape mountain ranges. In the Pamir of Central Asia, glacial morphologies and deposits indicate extensive past glaciations, whose timing and extent remain poorly constrained. Geomorphic data and 15 new 10Be exposure ages from moraine boulders and roches moutonnées in the southwestern Pamir document multiple Pleistocene glacial stages. The oldest exposure ages, 113±10ka, underestimate the age of the earliest preserved glacial advance and imply that the modern relief of the southwestern Pamir (peaks at ∼5000–6000 m a.s.l.; valleys at ∼2000–3000 m a.s.l.) already existed in the late Middle Pleistocene. Younger exposure ages (∼40–80 ka, ∼30 ka) complement the existing Central Asian glacial chronology and reflect successively less extensive Late Pleistocene glaciations. The topography of the Pamir and the glacial chronologies suggest that, in the Middle Pleistocene, an ice cap or ice field occupied the eastern Pamir high-altitude plateau, whereas westward flowing valley glaciers incised the southwestern Pamir. Since the Late Pleistocene deglaciation, the rivers of the southwestern Pamir adjusted to the glacially shaped landscape. Localized rapid fluvial incision and drainage network reorganization reflect the transient nature of the deglaciated landscape.

Precipitation Spectra Analysis Over China With High-Resolution Measurements From Optimally Merged Satellite/Gauge Observations—Part I: Spatial and Seasonal Analysis

Precipitation amount (PA), frequency (PF), and intensity (PI) over China are characterized and quantified using a high-resolution merged satellite-gauge precipitation product for 6 years (January 2008 through December 2013). The precipitation product synthesizes both state-of-the-art multisatellite precipitation algorithms and the latest, densest gauge observations to provide high-quality precipitation information at a very fine temporal and spatial resolution $(\text{0.1}^{\circ}\!/\text{hourly})$ that encompasses all of China. The geographical and seasonal variations in precipitation are systematically documented over seven subregions, each corresponding to a unique climate regime. PA, PF, and PI have large seasonal and geographical variations across China. It is found that 1) although heavy precipitation events $({ > } 10 \;\text{mm/h})$ represent only 0.8% of total precipitation occurrence over China, they contribute 12.1% of the total precipitation volume. Light precipitation events $({ dominate the precipitation occurrence (74.3%) and contribute 23.1% of the total precipitation volume; 2) over the high-altitude Tibetan Plateau (TP), the landlocked Xinjiang (XJ) province, and northwestern China (NW), light precipitation events $({ occur very frequently (74.7%, 82.1%, and 64.1% of all precipitation events) and contribute 29.8%, 35.5%, and 27.4% of the total precipitation volume. This initial continental-scale study provides new insights on precipitation characteristics that can benefit meteorological and hydrological modeling and applications, especially in areas with sparse rain-gauge coverage.

Screening of derivatives of 2-(benzoyilamino)(1-r-2-oxoindolin-3-ylidene)acetic acid under the conditions of acute hypobaric hypoxia

The results of screening of 2-(benzoyilamino)(1-R-2-oxoindolin-3-ylidene)acetic acid derivatives on the antihypoxic activity are presented in the article. It has been determined that under the conditions of acute hypоbaric hypoxia compounds 4, 14 and 15 have shown the increase of the integral index of the antihypoxic activity of substances – the overall lifetime of animals at the “high-altitude plateau”. However, the mortality rate of animals reached 20% for compound 4, and it significantly exceeded the control data. At the same time, compound 14 by its antihypoxic activity significantly increased the overall lifetime of animals by 150% compared to the control data, but its effect was significantly weaker than the effect of the reference drug mexidol, which increased the lifetime of animals by 197% (p&lt;0.05). For compound 15 the overall lifetime of animals increased by 186% compared to the control data (p&lt;0.05) and did not differ significantly from that of the reference drug. The data obtained indicate that most of the substances studied – derivatives of 2-(benzoyilamino)(1-R-2-oxoindolin-3-ylidene)acetic acid – demonstrate certain antihypoxic properties, as well as derivatives of 2-(2-oxoindolin-3-ylidene)acetic acid previously researched. Moreover, only compound 15 corresponds to the antihypoxic efficacy of the reference drug, and by the index of recovery of the animals’ physical activity after their staying at the “high-altitude plateau” (the posture recovery time) it exceeds the effect of the antihypoxant drug mexidol.

Drainage reorganization during mountain building in the river system of the Eastern Cordillera of the Colombian Andes

The Eastern Cordillera of Colombia is a thick-skinned thrust-fold belt that is characterized by two topographic domains: (1) the axial zone, a high altitude plateau (the Sabana de Bogotá, 2500masl) with low local relief and dominated by longitudinal rivers, and (2) the Cordillera flanks, where local relief exceeds 1000m and transverse rivers dominate. On the basis of an analysis of digital topography and river parameters combined with a review of paleodrainage data, we show that the accumulation of shortening and crustal thickening during the Andean orogeny triggered a process of fluvial reorganization in the Cordillera. Owing to a progressive increase of the regional slope, the drainage network evolves from longitudinal to transverse-dominated, a process that is still active at present. This study provides the idea of progressive divide migration toward the inner part of the mountain belt, by which the area of the Sabana de Bogotá plateau is decreasing, the flanks increase in area, and ultimately transverse rivers will probably dominate the drainage of the Cordillera.

Zooplankton of the highland bogs of Putana, a desert wetland of the high puna, northern Chile

The Atacama “puna” (high-altitude plateau) is situated among the high peaks of the Andes at over 4000 m a.s.l. This ecosystem covers parts of north-eastern Chile, north-western Argentina, south-eastern Peru, and mid-western Bolivia. The puna brings together several types of wetlands, such as salt-flats, lakes, rivers, high marshes, and highland bogs. Highland bogs are peatlands associated with endorheic basins. The object of this study was to analyse the specific composition and structure of the zooplankton of the bogs of the Putana River, on the Altiplano of northern Chile. In 2012, zooplankton samples were taken for qualitative and quantitative analysis at nine stations of the bog. Nine taxa of zooplanktonic crustaceans were recorded. The species richness is higher than records in other high Andean wetland at a similar altitude, although the species found have been reported for other high Andean wetlands and Andean lakes in Chile and from neighbouring countries.