Heterosexual Self-presentation Research Articles

Why do men stigmatize individuals with eating disorders more than women? Experimental evidence that sex differences in conformity to gender norms, not biological sex, drive eating disorders’ stigmatization

ABSTRACTPrevious research has shown that men are more stigmatizing than women toward individuals with eating disorders, including anorexia nervosa and muscle dysmorphia. We hypothesized that previously observed sex differences in eating disorders’ stigmatization are driven by sex differences in individuals’ levels of conformity to masculine and feminine gender norms. Young adults (N = 545) completed validated measures of conformity to masculine and feminine norms and were then randomly assigned to read a character description of a male or female individual with anorexia or muscle dysmorphia. Subsequently, participants’ stigmatizing attitudes toward the characters were assessed. Multivariate analyses indicated that participants’ conformity to masculine and feminine norms were superior predictors of stigmatization relative to biological sex (male/female). Further, participants’ conformity to masculine norms, but not feminine norms, was significantly predictive of stigmatization. Specific masculine norms predictive of eating disorders’ stigmatization included self-reliance and heterosexual self-presentation. Our findings argue against the notion that men are intrinsically more stigmatizing of eating disorders than women; rather, sex differences in socialization to masculine gender norms may drive stigmatization. Importantly, our study highlights masculine gender norm conformity as a target for researchers involved in the development of prevention programs for eating disorders’ stigmatization.

Masculinity Beliefs and Colorectal Cancer Screening in Male Veterans.

As the third most common cause of cancer death among United States men, colorectal cancer (CRC) represents a significant threat to men's health. Although adherence to CRC screening has the potential to reduce CRC mortality by approximately half, men's current rates of adherence fall below national screening objectives. In qualitative studies, men have reported forgoing screenings involving the rectum (e.g., colonoscopy) due to concern about breaching masculinity norms. However, the extent to which masculinity beliefs predict men's CRC screening adherence has yet to be examined. The current study tested the hypothesis that greater endorsement of masculinity beliefs (i.e., self-reliance, risk-taking, heterosexual self-presentation, and primacy of work) would be associated with a lower likelihood of adherence to CRC screening with any test and with colonoscopy specifically. Participants were 327 men aged 51-75 at average risk for CRC who were accessing primary care services at a Midwestern Veterans Affairs Medical Center. Contrary to hypotheses, masculinity beliefs did not predict CRC screening outcomes in hierarchical regression analyses that controlled for demographic predictors of screening. Although results are largely inconsistent with masculinity theory and prior qualitative findings, further research is needed to determine the degree to which findings generalize to other populations and settings.

Barroom Aggression Among Australian Men: Associations With Heavy Episodic Drinking, Conformity to Masculine Norms, and Personal and Perceived Peer Approval of Barroom Aggression.

Research suggests that heavy episodic drinking (HED), perceived peer norms, and personal approval of aggression influence male barroom aggression (MBA). Qualitative research suggests that conformity to hegemonic masculine gender norms also influences MBA; however, quantitative research on the direct and indirect influence of masculinity on MBA is limited. This study tested the relationships between HED, conformity to masculine gender norms, and personal approval and peer approval of MBA on MBA perpetration, as well as the indirect effect of masculine norms on MBA via HED. A convenience sample of Australian men (N = 322; mean age = 21.05 years, SD = 1.95; 76.9% university students) completed an online questionnaire, assessing HED and MBA over the previous year, and subscales of the Beliefs and Attitudes Towards Male Alcohol-Related Aggression Inventory and Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory-46. Negative binomial regression analyses found that, overall, HED, male peer approval, and personal approval of MBA directly predicted increased risk of verbal and physical MBA perpetration. Greater conformity to specific masculine norms also increased (Power Over Women) and decreased (Emotional Control, Heterosexual Self-Presentation) risk of MBA perpetration. The masculine norms Risk Taking, Playboy, and Emotional Control were found to be indirect predictors of MBA via HED. Risk of MBA perpetration is increased primarily by HED as a direct, but also mediating, predictor. Personal and male peer approval of MBA, and specific masculine norms, further increase this risk whereas other masculine norms appear protective.

Sexual identity and its disclosure as moderators between norms of heterosexual self-presentation and well-being among Hong Kong Chinese men.

Sexual identity and its disclosure as moderators between norms of heterosexual self-presentation and well-being among Hong Kong Chinese men.

Self-Presentation, Individual Differences, and Gendered Evaluations of Nonverbal Greeting Behaviors among Close Male Friends

Individual differences influence both relational behaviors and third-party perceptions. This study extends research on perceptions of nonverbal greetings by analyzing personality characteristics, self-presentational goals, and cognitive processing in the evaluation of ritualized nonverbal greetings between men. 146 subjects watched one of two different videos showing male friends publicly greeting one another using either intimate or non-intimate touch. Results demonstrate the influence of nonverbals and the relative appropriateness of ritualized greetings. Participants were also increasingly distracted by intimate touch in the videos if they had stronger desire for heterosexual self-presentation, indicating stressors associated with an increased cognitive load. This study highlights influences of gender orientation, self-presentation, and nonverbal norms upon both observer's cognitive processing and one's subsequent attitude towards relational behaviors.

Sexism in online video games: The role of conformity to masculine norms and social dominance orientation

Sexism toward women in online video game environments has become a pervasive and divisive issue in the gaming community. In this study, we sought to determine what personality traits, demographic variables, and levels of game play predicted sexist attitudes towards women who play video games. Male and female participants (N=301) who were players of networked video games were invited to participate in an anonymous online survey. Social dominance orientation and conformity to some types of masculine norms (desire for power over women and the need for heterosexual self-presentation) predicted higher scores on the Video Game Sexism Scale (i.e., greater sexist beliefs about women and gaming). Implications for the social gaming environment and female gamers are discussed.

“HIV testing is so gay”: The role of masculine gender role conformity in HIV testing among men who have sex with men.

Men who have sex with men (MSM) account for more than half of all new cases of HIV infection in the United States. Yet, many MSM are unaware of their HIV serostatus. Consistent with research indicating that gender role conformity impacts health behaviors, this study examined how masculine norms may influence HIV testing among MSM in the United States. Data from 170 self-identified MSM (age M = 46.45, SD = 12.18) of self-reported negative or unknown HIV serostatus living in the United States were used in this study. About half (52%) of participants reported that they had been tested for HIV within the past 12 months; 48% reported that they had not. Logistic regression was used to examine the association between domains of masculine gender role conformity and HIV testing within the past 12 months, controlling for number of sexual partners in the last 12 months. The masculine norm of heterosexual self-presentation (i.e., desire to be perceived by others as heterosexual) was negatively associated with HIV testing (B = -0.74, SE B = 0.36, O.R. = 0.48, 95% CI [0.24, 0.96]), after controlling for the effect of number of sexual partners. Psychologists and other health professionals may remain mindful of potential implications of HIV testing among MSM, including potential for MSM to view HIV testing as an "outing" procedure.

The Influences of Attribution, Context, and Heterosexual Self-Presentation on Perceived Appropriateness of Self-Disclosure in Same-Sex Male Friendships

Although same-sex male friendships are often characterized as relatively non-disclosive, context normativeness and heterosexual self-presentation may explain variation in the attribution process affecting self-disclosure. In this study, 130 heterosexual men completed a self-presentation scale, read scenarios depicting self-disclosure among male friends in more and less normative contexts, and rated disclosure appropriateness and likely person and situation attributions in each context. As predicted, heterosexual self-presentation was negatively related to perceptions of disclosure appropriateness. Also, self-disclosure was judged as more appropriate and, more important, more likely due to contextual influences (rather than features of the discloser) in more, as compared to less, normative contexts.