Heterogeneity In Women Research Articles

The Unique Impacts of COVID-19 on Low-Income and Diverse Canadian Women's Mental Health Profiles: A Latent Transition Analysis.

There is evidence of an overall decline in women's mental health, particularly those with young children, in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, research has also found heterogeneity in women's mental health responses. This longitudinal study sampled low-income women with young children by recruiting from the government's child care financial subsidy waitlist. To examine heterogeneity in women's mental health responses to COVID-19, a latent transition analysis was employed to identify profiles of anxiety, depression, and stress among 289 low-income mothers. Using these identified profiles, we examined the transitional patterns between profiles before and during COVID-19 and the sociodemographic and familial factors related to these profiles. A three-profile solution was identified prior to COVID-19 and a four-profile solution during COVID-19, with some profiles exhibiting qualitatively different defining characteristics. Latent transition analyses found diverse patterns of mental health changes after the onset of COVID-19. Mothers with better mental health prior to COVID-19 tended to have the most stable mental health during COVID-19. In contrast, mothers who were highly stressed prior to COVID-19 were equally likely to improve or decline after the onset of the pandemic. In addition, the relationships between race, parenting practices, child temperament, and child mental health were significantly related to mothers' mental health profiles. These findings describe mothers' experiences and areas where policymakers and practitioners can tailor support to low-income women with young children.

Single-cell analysis of uterosacral ligament revealed cellular heterogeneity in women with pelvic organ prolapse

Pelvic organ prolapse (POP) markedly affects the quality of life of women, including significant financial burden. Using single-cell RNA sequencing, we constructed a transcriptional profile of 30,452 single cells of the uterosacral ligament in POP and control samples, which has never been constructed before. We identified 10 major cell types, including smooth muscle cells, endothelial cells, fibroblasts, neutrophils, macrophages, monocytes, mast cells, T cells, B cells, and dendritic cells. We performed subpopulation analysis and pseudo-time analysis of POP primary cells, and explored differentially expressed genes. We verified previous cell clusters of human neutrophils of uterosacral ligaments. We found a significant reduction in receptor-ligand pairs related to ECM and cell adhesion between fibroblasts and endothelial cells in POP. The transcription factors related to the extracellular matrix, development, and immunity were identified in USL. Here we provide insight into the molecular mechanisms of POP and valuable information for future research directions.

The experience of bearing a child: implications on body boundaries and their link to preterm birth.

Preterm birth, which occurs when a baby is born before 37 weeks, has enormous implications for public health. It is the leading cause of infant death and mortality in children under the age of five. Unfortunately, the multifaceted causes of preterm birth are not fully understood. One construct that has received increasing attention in women's transition to motherhood is body boundaries, i.e., the metaphorical barriers that separate the self from the outer, surrounding "not self." This study aims to examine the role of well-defined and disturbed body boundaries in predicting preterm birth. A sample of 655 Israeli pregnant women reported their sense of body boundaries (BBS, as measured by the Sense of Body Boundaries Survey) pre- and postnatally. We performed a General Linear Model (GLM) testing the effect of the BBS total score on the days women delivered before their due date and controlling for whether it was the women's first child. Our GLMs controlling for whether it was the women's first child showed that the BBS total mean exhibited a significant predictive effect on the number of days delivered before the due date (F(57,313) = 3.65, p < .001). These results demonstrate heterogeneity in women's sense of body boundaries during pregnancy and are the first to disentangle a link between disturbed body boundaries and preterm birth. Mediating mechanisms in this relation, e.g., psychosocial stress, as well as clinical implications are discussed in detail.

P-661 Therapeutic management in women with a diminished ovarian reserve (DOR): a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized control trials

Abstract Study question Unlike previous reviews, our meta-analysis investigated protocols involving only women with diminished ovarian reserve (DOR) identified by antral follicle count and/or AMH (POSEIDON criteria). Summary answer Testosterone, GH and delayed antagonist starting protocol are associated with better IVF outcomes comparing with respective control groups. What is known already The clinical management of women with diminished ovarian reserve (DOR) is a challenge in the field of medically assisted reproduction. Several therapeutic strategies have been proposed, however, with mixed results. This issue is probably linked to the fact that the definition of diminished ovarian reserve used was inconsistent among trials. The POSEIDON criteria define women with DOR, based on antral follicle count and levels of antimullerian hormone (AFC &amp;lt;5 or AMH &amp;lt;1.2 ng/ml). Study design, size, duration We conducted a systematic search using the MEDLINE, EMBASE, and ISI WEB OF KNOWLEDGE, to identify relevant studies published up to July 2022. The reference lists were also hand-searched to implement the systematic search. We selected only RCTs in which the study population was affected by DOR with basal levels of AMH and AFC consistent with Poseidon criteria. The primary outcome was live birth rate or ongoing pregnancy when data on live birth was unavailable. Participants/materials, setting, methods A total of 14,386 articles were identified through the search, and duplications were removed using the EndNote library and manually (n = 6,945). The titles and abstracts of 7,441 articles were scrutinized, and 117 full-text articles were assessed for eligibility. In total, forty-seven RCTs were included. The following interventions were evaluated: DHEA, testosterone; GH high versus low gonadotropin dose regimen, delayed started protocol, letrozole, clomiphene citrate, luteal phase stimulation, dual triggering, LH supplementation, corifollitropin alfa. Main results and the role of chance Testosterone, high-dose gonadotropin regimen, and delayed antagonist starting protocol significantly improved the total number of eggs collected. In addition, GH and delayed starting protocol significantly increased the number of metaphase II oocytes. Testosterone, GH, and delayed antagonist starting protocol were associated with improved clinical pregnancy rates among all interventions evaluated. Testosterone and GH were also associated with higher live birth rates comparing with no supplemented women. Limitations, reasons for caution The main limitation of the present review relates to the minimal number of studies reporting live birth rates. Another relevant issue is the heterogeneity in women involved and the IVF protocols' diversity. More trials are demanding to corroborate our findings. Wider implications of the findings Our study's results might help clinicians to identify the most appropriate approach to managing women with DOR. Furthermore, our findings may stimulate researchers to develop more specific trials centred on specific categories of low-prognosis women, for example, those with a standardized diagnosis of DOR. Trial registration number The review protocol was registered at http://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/ (registration number CRD42022346117O).

Heterogeneity In Women’s Trauma Histories: Impact On Substance Use Disorder Severity

ABSTRACT Trauma and substance use disorders (SUDs) frequently co-occur, especially in women. Previous studies have attempted to determine if individual differences in trauma histories could be meaningfully categorized but few studies have focused solely on women, especially those reporting substance use problems. A total of 130 women (M age = 30.7, SD = 7.9) self reporting past-year substance use problems completed comprehensive measures assessing lifetime exposure to a variety of traumatic events as well as substance use patterns and severity. Using latent class analysis, three classes emerged, a Low Lifetime Interpersonal Trauma class (40%, n = 52), a Moderate Lifetime Interpersonal Trauma class (23.8%, n = 31) and a High Lifetime Interpersonal Trauma class (36.2%, n = 47). Groups did not vary on daily/almost daily use of different types of substances and polysubstance use frequency but were significantly different on SUD severity, with the Moderate and the High Lifetime Interpersonal Trauma classes reporting severe SUD severity in comparison to moderate severity for the Low Interpersonal Trauma class. The findings of the current study indicate that women experiencing substance use problems should receive SUD treatment in a trauma-informed manner but that not all may require integrated trauma and substance use interventions.

Moving beyond the mean: Promising research pathways to support a precision medicine approach to hormonal contraception

Women’s psychological and behavioral responses to hormonal contraceptive (HC) treatment can be highly variable. One of the great challenges to researchers seeking to improve the experiences of women who use HCs is to identify the sources of this variability to minimize unpleasant psychobehavioral side-effects. In the following, we provide recommendations for programs of research aimed at identifying sources of heterogeneity in women’s experiences with HC. First, we review research demonstrating person- and prescription- based heterogeneity in women’s psychobehavioral responses to HCs. Next, we identify several promising person- and prescription- based sources of this heterogeneity that warrant future research. We close with a discussion of research approaches that are particularly well-suited to address the research questions raised in article. Together, this review provides researchers with several promising research pathways to help support the development of a precision medicine approach to HC treatment.

Association of Early Pregnancy Free and Total Triiodothyronine With the Subsequent Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

ObjectiveTo estimate the association of free triiodothyronine (FT3) and total triiodothyronine (TT3) in early pregnancy and subsequent gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) risk and define appropriate TT3 thresholds for GDM screening. MethodsThis investigation is a hospital-based cohort study of pregnant women submitted to a universal thyroid function test before 24 weeks of gestation. GDM was diagnosed according to a 75-g oral glucose tolerance test. The association of maternal high FT3 and TT3 levels in early pregnancy with the risk of GDM was estimated using logistic regression. The potential nonlinear association was probed by the restricted cubic spline curve method. ResultsA total of 27 184 pregnant women and 3073 GDM cases were included in the analysis. FT3 and TT3 were associated with an increased subsequent risk of GDM in a nonlinear fashion. The adjusted odds ratios were 1.59 (95% confidence interval, 1.50-1.68) and 2.80 (95% confidence interval, 2.46-3.18) for FT3 and TT3 continuous levels, respectively. Associations were strong in euthyroid women, showed heterogeneity in women with mild thyroid dysfunction, and lacked in patients with overt hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. The TT3 thresholds of 1.5 and 2.0 ng/mL between 7 and 12 weeks of gestation and 1.6 and 2.1 ng/mL for 13 to 23 weeks of gestation effectively distinguished the subsequent risk of GDM. ConclusionThe increased FT3 and TT3 levels in early pregnancy were associated with a subsequent higher risk of GDM. These findings provide measures for early detection and potential prevention of GDM.

The prognostic significance of a novel ferroptosis-related gene model in breast cancer.

BackgroundBreast cancer (BRCA) is the most common malignancy with high heterogeneity in women, and the prognostic prediction for BRCA has remained poor. Ferroptosis, a recently identified iron-dependent form of programmed cell death, plays a significant role in BRCA treatment. Some BRCA cell lines are proven to be sensitive to ferroptosis, and some ferroptosis-related genes have been identified as divers or suppressors in the progress of BRCA. This study aimed to explore the prognostic value of ferroptosis-related genes in BRCA.MethodsA ferroptosis-related gene list, messenger RNA (mRNA) gene expression of BRCA patients, and corresponding clinicopathological data were collected from public databases. The patients of the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) were identified as the training cohort, and the ones of the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) were looked as the validation cohort. Univariate Cox regression analysis was utilized to identify prognostic ferroptosis-related genes, and subsequent multivariate analysis further screened out important genes to establish a prognostic model. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were used to validate the model in both internal and external cohorts. Functional analysis was generated to evaluate the potential correlation between tumor immunity and ferroptosis-related genes in BRCA.ResultsA ferroptosis-related gene signature stratifying patients into 2 risk score groups was established based on the TCGA cohort, and validated in the GEO cohort. Patients with lower risk scores had better overall survival (OS) compared to those with higher risk scores (P<0.001, TCGA cohort; P<0.05, GEO cohort). The risk score was independently associated with the OS of BRCA patients (P<0.001, TCGA cohort; P<0.05, GEO cohort). The area under the curves (AUCs) of the model in the training and validation cohorts were all around 0.7. Immune-related biological pathways and immune status were significantly different between the 2 divided risk groups.ConclusionsThe novel prognostic model composed of 9 ferroptosis-related genes accurately predicts the survival of BRCA patients. It might provide a new sight for ferroptosis-related BRCA therapy.

Sex-differences in circulating biomarkers during acute myocardial infarction: An analysis from the SWEDEHEART registry.

BackgroundSex-differences in the pathobiology of myocardial infarction are well established but incompletely understood. Improved knowledge on this topic may help clinicians to improve management of men and women with myocardial infarction.MethodsIn this registry-based cohort study (SWEDEHEART), we analyzed 175 circulating biomarkers reflecting various pathobiological axes in 856 men and 243 women admitted to Swedish coronary care units because of myocardial infarction. Two multimarker panels were applied (Proximity Extension Assay [Olink Bioscience], Multiple Reaction Monitoring mass spectrometry). Lasso analysis (penalized logistic regression), multiple testing-corrected Mann-Whitney tests and Cox regressions were used to assess sex-differences in the concentrations of these biomarkers and their implications on all-cause mortality and major adverse events (median follow-up up to 6.6 years).ResultsBiomarkers provided a very high discrimination between both sexes, when considered simultaneously (c-statistics 0.972). Compared to women, men had higher concentrations of six biomarkers with the most pronounced differences seen for those reflecting atherogenesis, myocardial necrosis and metabolism. Women had higher concentrations of 14 biomarkers with the most pronounced differences seen for those reflecting activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone axis, inflammation and for adipokines. There were no major variations between sexes in the associations of these biomarkers with outcome.ConclusionsSeverable sex-differences exist in the expression of biomarkers in patients with myocardial infarction. While these differences had no impact on outcome, our data suggest the presence of various sex-related pathways involved in the development of coronary atherosclerosis, the progression to plaque rupture and acute myocardial damage, with a greater heterogeneity in women.

Working to protect rights: Women's civil liberties in cross-cultural perspective

Using data for a majority of the world's countries over a 25- to 55-year period, this paper analyzes cross-cultural heterogeneity in women's civil liberties independently of and relative to men. Civil liberties include the freedoms of discussion and movement, freedom from forced labor, property rights, and access to justice. Regression analyses show that women's civil liberties vary considerably across cultural zones defined by the intersection of religious traditions and geographical regions. These patterns persist even when controlling for factors such as democracy and development. Accounting for women's political representation and educational attainment often reduces but never eliminates these cross-cultural differences; the same is true for embeddedness in world society. In contrast, women's labor force participation all but erases negative cultural effects, and instrumental-variables analyses suggest that this factor is a causal determinant of women's civil liberties. Efforts to improve women's rights should therefore focus on overcoming cultural barriers to their workforce participation.

Poetic Negotiations: Salad Bowl Feminism in Selected Poetry of Fehmida Riaz, Pat Mora and Joan Loveridge-Sanbonmatsu

The research attempts to evaluate the depiction of women's oppression in specific postcolonial contexts at the hands of the interlocked power pattern formed by manifold factors like patriarchy, class conflict, religion, ethnicity and imperialism in the selected poetry of the renowned Pakistani poetess Fehmida Riaz, the Latino American Poetess Pat Mora, and the Japanese poetess Sanbonmatsu. It applies the theory of Postcolonial Feminism to bring to the fore the oppression of postcolonial women at the intersection of gender, class, race, religion and culture, hence, offering a critique of Western Feminist discourse and its slogan of sisterhood, which tends to erase heterogeneity in women's situations across the globe. The theory of Third World Feminism as well as the portrayals in these poetic compositions from a variety of postcolonial social formations, highlight the fact that postcolonial women are not a monolithic and archetypal suffering category as presented in Western discourses; instead, their resistant agency and subversive subjectivity also stands at the center of their creative writings.

Incarceration History and Depressive Symptoms Among Women Released from US Correctional Facilities: Does Timing, Duration, or Frequency Matter?

Research on the impact of incarceration history on the depressive symptoms of released women has yielded conflicting findings, potentially due to the use of an oversimplified dichotomized measure of incarceration history that masks the significant heterogeneity in women’s incarceration history across different studies. This study used Add Health measures that reflect the timing, duration, and frequency of incarceration to examine its association with released women’s depressive symptoms. Chi-square and t tests were conducted to characterize released women (n = 626) in comparison to women without an incarceration history (n = 7237). Simple correlation analyses and multiple linear regression were then used to determine the association between incarceration history and released women’s depressive symptoms. Findings revealed that the timing, duration, and frequency of incarceration were not significant correlates of released women’s depressive symptoms. Instead, experiences of cumulative disadvantages were significant predictors. We concluded that the effects of cumulative disadvantages on released women’s depressive symptoms might outsize the impact of incarceration history.

The Impact of Adverse Childhood Events on the Sexual and Mental Health of Women Experiencing Intimate Partner Violence.

Women experiencing intimate partner violence (IPV) are at an increased risk of engaging in sexual risk behaviors and experiencing depressive and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Adverse childhood events (ACEs) can put women at increased risk of poor sexual and mental health. Women experiencing IPV report ACEs, but few studies have examined the heterogeneity in women's experiences of ACEs and its effects on sexual and mental health. Therefore, the current study used latent profile analysis to identify profiles of ACEs (i.e., witnessing maternal and paternal IPV victimization; childhood physical, sexual, and emotional abuse; and physical and emotional neglect) and their association with sexual risk behaviors and depressive and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Women experiencing IPV aged 18 to 58 years (N = 212) were recruited from community establishments and completed face-to-face, computer-assisted interviews. Three profiles were identified: Low ACEs class (n = 115), Moderate ACEs class (n = 62), and High ACEs class (n = 35). Path analyses revealed that profiles of ACEs directly predicted women's IPV victimization severity and depressive and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Secondary and tertiary mental health interventions may be more effective if the heterogeneity in women's ACEs is addressed by integrating intervention strategies specific to these ACE subgroups.

Progress without Progressives? The Effects of Development on Women's Educational and Political Equality in Cultural Context, 1980 to 2010

Researchers often attribute diminishing gender inequality to economic development. When different aspects of gender inequality are examined, however, evidence points to both cross-national convergence as well as persistent (or even growing) heterogeneity in women's status. To make sense of this contradiction, we examine the extent to which culture moderates the relationship between economic development and gender inequality. We consider two dimensions of gender inequality, gender gaps in educational attainment and women's share of parliament, using data for 150 countries between 1980 and 2010. We find convergence toward greater equality in education, independently of economic development. But cross-cultural differences in female political representation persist or even grow as a function of economic development. Our results imply that economic development is not a direct pathway to greater gender equality. Rather, cultural legacies play an important role in shaping developmental trajectories.

Aggregating Elasticities: Intensive and Extensive Margins of Women's Labor Supply

We show that there is substantial heterogeneity in women's labor supply elasticities at the micro level and highlight the implications for aggregate behavior. We consider both intertemporal and intratemporal choices, and identify intensive and extensive responses in a consistent life‐cycle framework, using US CEX data. Heterogeneity is due to observables, such as age, wealth, hours worked, and the wage level, as well as to unobservable tastes for leisure: the median Marshallian elasticity for hours worked is 0.18, with corresponding Hicksian elasticity of 0.54 and Frisch elasticity of 0.87. At the 90th percentile, these values are 0.79, 1.16, and 1.92. Responses at the extensive margin explain about 54% of the total labor supply response for women under 30, although this declines with age. Aggregate elasticities are higher in recessions, and increase with the length of the recession. The heterogeneity at the micro level means that the aggregate labor supply elasticity is not a structural parameter: any aggregate elasticity will depend on the demographic structure of the economy as well as the distribution of wealth and the particular point in the business cycle.

Investigating the Heterogeneity in Women’s Preferences for Breast Screening: Does the Communication of Risk Matter?

BackgroundThe relative benefits and risks of screening programs for breast cancer have been extensively debated. ObjectivesTo quantify and investigate heterogeneity in women’s preferences for the benefits and risks of a national breast screening program (NBSP) and to understand the effect of risk communication format on these preferences. MethodsAn online discrete choice experiment survey was designed to elicit preferences from female members of the public for an NBSP described by three attributes (probability of detecting a cancer, risk of unnecessary follow-up, and out-of-pocket screening costs). Survey respondents were randomized to one of two surveys, presenting risk either as percentages only or as icon arrays and percentages. Respondents were required to choose between two hypothetical NBSPs or no screening in 11 choice sets generated using a Bayesian D-efficient design. The trade-offs women made were analyzed using heteroskedastic conditional logit and scale-adjusted latent class models. ResultsA total of 1018 women completed the discrete choice experiment (percentages-only version = 507; icon arrays and percentages version = 511). The results of the heteroskedastic conditional logit model suggested that, on average, women were willing-to-accept 1.72 (confidence interval 1.47–1.97) additional unnecessary follow-ups and willing-to-pay £79.17 (confidence interval £66.98–£91.35) for an additional cancer detected per 100 women screened. Latent class analysis indicated substantial heterogeneity in preferences with six latent classes and three scale classes providing the best fit. The risk communication format received was not a predictor of scale class or preference class membership. ConclusionsMost women were willing to trade-off the benefits and risks of screening, but decision makers seeking to improve uptake should consider the disparate needs of women when configuring services.

CONTRACEPTIVE USE AND TIME TO FIRST BIRTH

AbstractAlthough contraception allows women to delay childbirth, stop unwanted childbearing, and postpone childbirth, not all contraception is equally effective, equally easy to access, or equally easy to use. Due to heterogeneity in women’s contraception opportunities and choices, in the effectiveness of the contraception used and even in luck, women differ in both their birth intervals and their age at first childbirth. We explore this heterogeneity, theoretically, incorporating contraception effectiveness and uncertainty (along with potential earnings, contraception costs, and net child benefits) into a potential mother’s childbearing decisions. Empirically, these factors are incorporated into a first hit time duration model, focusing on time to first birth, estimated with data from the Democratic Republic of Congo. The results provide nuanced insights into the income-fertility puzzle. Our evidence suggests that educated women start childbearing later, and are better able to use contraception, even less effective contraception. Thus, there are education-related heterogeneities in contraceptive effectiveness. Further, we find that women using more effective contraception start childbearing at a later age, as do women with better access to contraception. Both improved female education and improved access to modern contraception have the potential to hasten the fertility transition in the Democratic Republic of Congo.

An inquiry into self-identification with retirement

ABSTRACTThe aim of this qualitative study was to explore patterns in self-identification with being retired using deductive thematic analysis informed by the life course perspective. For this study, a set of women who self-identified as retired (n = 60) were asked to describe their current work status, major career interruptions, and factors that marked their retirement. This study provides important insights into the heterogeneity in women’s retirement including a subset of individuals who self-identified as retired, not based on their own work force transitions but on that of their spouse or peers. Findings highlight the importance of recognizing that the construction of retirement identity can be context driven, varied, and subjective.

Heterogeneity in Women’s Adherence and Its Role in Optimal Breast Cancer Screening Policies

Most major health institutions recommend women to undergo repeat mammography screening for early diagnosis of breast cancer, the leading cause of cancer deaths among women worldwide. Although the proportion of women who ever had a mammogram is increasing, a majority of women do not get repeat mammograms. This paper analyzes the role of heterogeneity in women’s adherence on optimal mammography screening recommendations. We develop a dynamic modeling framework that considers imperfect and heterogeneous adherence to screening recommendations. We carefully calibrate our model and solve it using real data. Unlike the existing breast cancer screening guidelines, our results suggest that adherence and heterogeneity in women’s adherence behaviors should be explicitly considered. In particular, we find that when screening strategies are optimized assuming average adherence for everyone, the effect on patients with already low adherence would be relatively small, but patients with high adherence would be adversely affected. Considering imperfect and heterogeneous adherence in the population, our model suggests (1) given the current low adherence rates, an aggressive screening policy such as annual screening between the ages of 40 and 79 should be promoted to the general population; (2) screening strategies may be adjusted in clinical practice based on women’s adherence, and screening intervals can be extended to two years for women with a history of high adherence; and (3) if the screening patterns change in the long run and most regular screeners adopt the most recent U.S. Preventive Services Task Force guidelines, then improving overall mammography adherence in society becomes more critical. This paper was accepted by Rakesh Sarin, decision analysis.

Intimate Partner Violence, Mental Health, and HPA Axis Functioning

Research results are mixed as to whether stress exerts its damaging effects via underor over-production of diurnal cortisol. Facets of the stressor itself as well as the mental health sequelae that follow have been put forward as important considerations in determining levels of cortisol secretion. We hypothesized that the contradictory findings in the literature were the result of variable-oriented methods masking the presence of distinctive subgroups of individuals. Using person-oriented methods, we explored whether there were classes of women who exhibited unique profiles of cortisol secretion, stress, and mental health by assessing 182 community women, many of whom had experienced intimate partner violence. The best fitting model in a latent profile analysis had 5 groups, each with distinct profiles of intimate partner violence stress (pregnancy and postpartum), cortisol secretion [cortisol awakening response (CAR) and diurnal slope], and mental health (posttraumatic stress, depressive, and anxiety symptoms). These were a Physiologically Under-Responsive group, a Healthy group, a Problematic CAR group, a Highest Stress/Normal Diurnal Slope group, and a Moderate Psychopathology/Normal Diurnal Slope group. Except for the Healthy group, the specific patterns of stress, mental health symptoms, and cortisol secretion identified in the literature were not found. The profiles were validated using variables that, in prior research, had shown relationships with the variables used to constitute the profiles—three types of parenting (neglectful, sensitive, and harsh), antisocial behavior, and physical health. We concluded that there is heterogeneity in women’s responses to stress. Current theories focused on the underor over-production of diurnal cortisol in relation to stress and mental health symptoms are simplistic and fail to account for the significant subgroups of women who show unique biological and psychological responses.