Hermaphrodite Trees Research Articles

REPRODUCTIVE ECOLOGY OF AN EVERGREEN DRY SEASON-BLOOMING TREE SPECIES, WALSURA TRIFOLIATA (A. JUSS.) HARMS (MELIACEAE)

Walsura trifoliata is an evergreen dry season-blooming hermaphroditic tree species. The flowers are nectariferous and characterized by urceolate androecium, strong protandry and secondary pollination mechanism, protruded bifid stigma displaying receptivity, self-compatibility and facultative xenogamy without the function of spontaneous autogamy. The floral traits indicate generalist pollination syndrome and adaptation for entomophily, with bees effecting mostly geitonogamy and wasps and butterflies effecting mostly xenogamy. Fruit-set is highest in xenogamy. Fruit is a globular drupe with 1-2 seeds embedded in fleshy aril. Seed dispersal modes include zoochory, barochory and hydrochory. The study shows that the function of generalist pollination syndrome, entomophily, facultative xenogamy and polychory enable this tree species to achieve highest fruit-set, maintain genetic variation through cross-pollination, and disperse its seeds to different distances in the forest ecosystem.

Nutritional, biochemical, and clinical applications of carob: A review.

Carob is botanically called as Ceratonia siliqua and belongs to the Legumes family. The fruit is derived from hermaphrodite trees and hard in shape. The carob contains high sugar contents in pulp, fat in seed and minerals like potassium, calcium, and phosphorus are present in pods. Polyphenols and antioxidants are abundant in leaves and pods. It can be used for enhancing human health due to its high nutritional profile. Carob gum is used in the pharmaceutical industry in the form of pomades, anti-celiac ingredients, pills, and dental paste. The clinical carob can aid as an anti-cancer, anti-reflux, anti-diabetic, anti-diarrheal, anti-hyperlipidemia, anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, and anti-fungal. Nowadays, carob seeds are being used as an alternative to cocoa powder in food items whereas the leaves, pods, and seeds of carob are also historically used as food for animal feed. However, these parts of carob are available in markets with reasonable prices. Carob production, though with a rising contribution, contributes to the local economy. In this sense, we can incorporate knowledge on the chemical properties and the biological effect of carob fruits on human health. In this study, the supportive and health-promoting impacts of carob are discussed along with the clinical testing obtained from natural constituents of carob. In addition, further studies can be performed to extract and separate polyphenols and antioxidant potential for the development of functional that play a valuable role in pharmaceutical and food sectors.

Adaptation Responses of Dioecious and Hermaphroditic Tree Species to Abiotic Stress

As sessile organisms, plants must cope with an ever-changing environment, including frequent abiotic stresses that are detrimental to plant growth and development, e [...]

Sexual systems of Tropical Dry Forest trees in restored habitats

Background: Obligate outcrossing species (such as dioecious species) are more vulnerable to habitat fragmentation than self-compatible hermaphrodite trees.
 Questions: What is the effect of restoration intervention in the populations of dioecious, monoecious, and hermaphrodite tree species in permanent agricultural landscapes?
 Study site and dates: 8-year-old restoration settings in the seasonally dry tropical forest in Sierra de Huautla Biosphere Reserve, Morelos, Mexico.
 Methods: We measure richness and density of dioecious, monoecious, and hermaphrodite tree species with Diameter at Breast Height ≥ 2.5 cm in perturbed, 8-year-old restoration settings (plantings and natural succession) and conserved habitats.
 Results: Overall habitats, 2,042 trees from 46 species in 18 families were identified; the highest percentage of species and trees were hermaphrodites (63 % of species and 78 % of trees), the lowest percentage of species were monoecious (9 %) and the lowest percentage of trees (10 %) were dioecious. In the plantings were registered the largest number of species (37 species) and in the conserved habitat the largest number of trees (852 trees). Density and richness of dioecious, monoecious, and hermaphrodite species did not differ by habitat, contrary to our predictions. For dioecious trees, the restored and conserved habitats showed similar composition heterogeneity. Composition of hermaphrodites in agricultural landscapes differed the most with the conserved habitat.
 Conclusions: Dioecious and monoecious species are favored in agricultural landscapes due to their use value. Selection of species for restoration plantings should consider sexual systems of trees to recover not only forest structure but also ecosystem function.

Study of Various Floral Types on Different Plants of Garcinia indica (Thouars) Choisy and Correlation of Its Functionality in Sexual Reproduction

ABSTRACT Genus Garcinia shows high diversity of sexual systems; most of them are dioecious in nature. The other reported sexual systems of Garcinia include gynodioecious, androdioecious, monoecious, and andromonoecious. Garcinia indica (Thouars) Choisy was reported as facultative apomictic polygamodioecious species. There is a large diversity in floral types. Hence, a detailed study of various floral types found on different types of plants of G. indica and to correlate its functionality with sexual reproduction was undertaken. The study at Kokum Plot, BSSKVV, Dapoli, revealed that the male plants could be categorized into four types – androecious, functional males, andromonoecious, and hermaphrodites. The female plants displayed large variation in number and viability of stamens/staminodes. Each category showed significant difference in phenology, floral morphology and pollen types. In December, the percentage of staminate flowers (79.13 ± 2.93%) in androecious trees was significantly higher than functional males (58.61 ± 8.60%) or andromonoecious trees (56.36 ± 2.77%) (p ≤ .01). As female plants started flowering, all male morphotypes bore significantly higher numbers of staminate flowers and carpellate flowers were significantly reduced. Pollen viability was highest in androecious flowers at 90.11 ± 1.10% and lowest at 64.70 ± 2.09% in hermaphrodite trees. Earlier studies reported female flowers bore well-developed female gametophyte, but the embryo development was not observed. Thus, the fruit formation might be apomictic, but in present embryological investigation; more than 60% of female and andromonoecious flowers, a well-developed embryo was formed between 8 and 24 h after anthesis. Thus, the embryo formation might be sexual or apomictic. Floral types favoring sexual reproduction are essential for conservation of highly endemic species.

Is the High Proportion of Males in a Population of the Self-Incompatible Fraxinus platypoda (Oleaceae) Indicative of True Androdioecy or Cryptic-Dioecy?

Androdioecy is a rare reproductive system. Fraxinus platypoda, a woody canopy species in Japan’s mountainous riparian zones, is described as a morphologically androdioecious species. In this study, we tried to detect whether F. platypoda is also functionally androdioecious. We analyzed its sexual expression, seed development, pollen morphology and germination ability, pollination systems, and mast flowering behavior. We found that the hermaphrodite trees are andromonoecious, with inflorescences bearing male and hermaphroditic flowers, whereas male individuals had only male flowers. Pollen morphology was identical in male flowers, in hermaphrodite flowers of an andromonoecious individual, and in male flowers of male individuals. Pollen from both types of individuals was capable of germination both ex vivo (on nutrient medium) and in vivo in pollination experiments. However, compared with pollen from andromonoecious trees, pollen from male trees showed a higher germination rate. The self-pollination rate of bagged hermaphroditic flowers was almost zero. The fruit set rate following cross-pollination with male pollen from a male tree was higher than that following natural pollination, whereas the rate with hermaphroditic pollen was the same. The flowering and fruiting of F. platypoda have fluctuated over 17 years; the flowering of the two types of sexual individuals exhibited clear synchronization during this period. The frequency of male individuals within the populations is 50%. The maintenance of such a proportion of males in populations of the self-incompatible F. platypoda is either indicative of a true androdioecious species with a diallelic self-incompatibility system or a cryptic-dioecious species. This alternative is discussed here.

Intraspecific variations in flowering phenology of African pear (Dacryodes edulis (g. Don) H.J. Lam) flowering in south east Nigeria

A survey was carried out in two states, six locations of south east Nigeria during the normal flowering period for three (3) consecutive years to evaluate the intraspecific variations in flowering phenology of African pear flowering. The different types of the species growing in the forest, distant and nearby farms, including homesteads were used. 60 trees and 180 flowered branches were sampled for the survey. Parameters collected include time for flowering, number of flower per inflorescence, inflorescence length and number of inflorescence per panicle. Data collected were analysed using analysis of variance, regression and correlation. Standard errors and percentages were calculated where appropriate. Based on the observed floral nature, three distinct African pear tree species were identified – female, male and hermaphrodite trees. The time of flowering varied within and between locations. This ranged from December to March 2013 to 2015 for the period of study. Strong positive relationship exist between inflorescence length and flower per inflorescence. Significant (p<0.05) differences were observed in mean flower per inflorescence and mean inflorescence per panicle in 2015 in Abia state. The mean inflorescence length, inflorescence per panicle and flower per inflorescence were statistically (p<0.05) the same for 2014 and 2015 in Imo State. These ranged from 14.79cm to 18.74cm,13.81cm to 18.60cm; 4.16 to 5.66; 5.75 to 6.61, 21.40 to 92.71 and 45.66 to 110.18 respectively.Inflorescence length and inflorescence per panicle were significantly (p<0.05) different in 2013in Imo State. In terms of the trees flowering circle, African pear can be seen as an annual since57% to 77% of the trees flower annually, while 23% to 43% flower biennially and triennially. Therefore the survey study discovered that there are variations in floral natures, inflorescence length, inflorescence per panicle, flowering circle, and time of flowering in African pear. This study will be useful for breeding purposes in African pear.

IS THE FLOWER OF PULASAN (NEPHELIUM RAMBOUTAN-AKE) A PROTOGYNY OR PROTANDRY?

Pulasan is an androdioecious plant that has both male and hermaphrodite flowers on separate plants. The objectives of this study were to obtain data about the anatomical structure of pulasan flower and to investigate whether the pistil and the stamens of pulasan flower reach maturity at different times. The anatomical observation was done on compound flowers taken from three male trees and three hermaphrodite trees. Two compound flowers that still in buds, about to bloom and fully bloom were picked from each tree. Flowers were observed in a cross and longitudinal section. The results showed that the sepals of pulasan flower comprised of the uniseriate epidermis and multilayered polyhedral parenchymal cells. Stamen development started from the anther followed by the formation of the filament. The pollen of hermaphrodite pulasan flowers reached maturation earlier than the pistil. The pistil development started from the expansion of meristem cells in the center of the flower and ends with the warp of the stigma.

Abnormal tapetum development in hermaphrodites of an androdioecious tree, Tapiscia sinensis.

Tapiscia sinensis Oliv. (Tapisciaceae) has been proven to be a functional androdioecious species with both male and hermaphroditic individuals, and the pollen viability of males is far higher than that of hermaphrodites. To better understand the causes of the low pollen viability in hermaphroditic flowers, different stages of anther development were observed. We found that hermaphroditic flowers exhibit abnormal tapetum development, resulting in low pollen viability. To clarify the underlying molecular mechanism of abnormal tapetum development in hermaphrodites, quantitative real-time PCR analyses were performed. The results revealed that the expression levels of an important transcription factor for tapetum development and function, T. sinensis DYSFUNCTIONAL TAPETUM1 (TsDYT1), and its potential downstream regulatory genes T. sinensis DEFECTIVE in TAPETAL DEVELOPMENT and FUNCTION1 (TsTDF1), T. sinensis ABORTED MICROSPORE (TsAMS) and T. sinensis MALE STERILITY 1 (TsMS1) were all significantly downregulated in hermaphrodites compared with males at some key stages of anther development. The amino acid sequence similarity, expression pattern, gene structure and subcellular localization of these genes were analyzed, and the results indicated functional conservation between T. sinensis and homologues in Arabidopsis thaliana. Next, rapid amplification of cDNA end and thermal asymmetric interlaced PCR were employed to clone the full-length cDNA and promoter sequences of these genes, respectively. In addition, results of yeast two-hybrid analysis showed that TsDYT1 can form heterodimers with TsAMS, and yeast one-hybrid analysis demonstrated that TsDYT1 directly binds to the promoter regions of TsTDF1 and TsMS1. TsTDF1 can directly regulate expression of TsAMS, suggesting that a functionally conserved pathway exists between A. thaliana and T. sinensis to regulate tapetum development. In conclusion, the results suggest that abnormal expression of core transcription factors for tapetum development, including TsDYT1, TsTDF1, TsAMS and TsMS1, plays an important role in the abnormal development of the tapetum in T. sinensis hermaphrodites. Furthermore, a hermaphroditic tapetum with abnormal function causes the low pollen viability of hermaphroditic trees. Our results provide new insight into our understanding of the underlying mechanism of why pollen viability is much higher in males than hermaphrodites of the androdioecious tree T. sinensis.

Molecular marker-assisted papaya sex determination for improved grower efficiency

The Australian market clearly distinguishes between types of papaya according to flesh colour, which may be yellow or red, and consumers have a distinct preference for fruit shape associated with flesh colour. There are two major preferences 1) round fruit, which are females, with yellow flesh and 2) oblong fruit, which are hermaphrodites, with red flesh. DNA-based markers have been developed to clearly identify the sex of papaya and these may be applied for selection at the early growth/seedling stage. In total, 10 primer pairs from the literature that were reported to amplify loci linked to the sex-related alleles of papaya were assessed. These were screened across bulked DNA of a set of 40 trees of defined sex, representative of female, male and hermaphrodite trees of four cultivars of commercial Australian papaya (1B, RB1, RB2 and RB4). Markers were then blind tested on individuals to determine their accuracy for sex selection. Of these, two primer sets, SCARps and SCAR SDSP, clearly discriminated female and male/hermaphrodite trees. These were subsequently validated on an entire breeding population comprising 2,000 seedlings and were demonstrated to be 100% accurate for sex prediction. The same markers were optimised within a high-throughput extraction and PCR screening bioassay to enable the sex determination of a minimum of 96 individuals within two hours. Therefore, these markers have been validated and are now being applied as a strategy to decrease resource wastage and improve on-farm efficiency within the northern Australian papaya industry.

Inbreeding depression from selfing and mating between relatives in the Neotropical tree Cariniana legalis Mart. Kuntze

Selfing or mating between related individuals in self-compatible hermaphroditic tree species may lead to inbreeding depression (ID) due to homozygosis in recessive, identical by descent alleles. In general, studies of ID in tree species have been based on comparisons of selfed individuals (produced by controlled pollination) with outcrossed individuals for quantitative traits in progeny tests. However, this approach requires a long time to quantify the extent of ID. Thus, we used an approach based on genetic markers to estimate coancestry coefficients between assigned parents from paternity analysis in two populations of the Neotropical tree Cariniana legalis. Using this method, we were able to determine which seedlings in a nursery trial originated from; (i) outcrossing between un-related trees, (ii) mating between related trees and (iii) selfing. We detected a low selfing rate (<10 %), but a substantial quantity of seedlings from mating between related parents (minimum of 35.7 %). In general, the outcrossed seedlings from unrelated parents exhibited significantly greater genetic diversity than those resulting from selfing and mating among relatives. The extent of ID varied among traits and populations. Outcrossed seedlings originating from unrelated trees generally showed greater survival than seedlings originating from selfing and related parents. Inbreeding depression was greater in the selfed seedlings than in those from mating among related parents. The results are discussed in terms of implications for genetic conservation, breeding and environmental restoration using the species.

Assessment of genetic diversity among androdioecious ancient Osmanthus fragrans trees by SSR markers

The well known ornamental plant, Osmanthus fragrans, is one of the rare androdioecious species in nature. Determining the genetic diversity of this species may assist in its conservation and genetic improvement. Data of 10 ancient tree populations of O. fragrans were used to assess its genetic diversity and population structure with microsatellite markers. A high level of genetic diversity was observed with POPGENE. As anticipated the heterozygosity of ancient hermaphrodite trees was higher than male ones, although the number of hermaphrodites was far fewer than males. Abundant gene exchange between males and hermaphrodites was detected, and trees from the same population often clustered together. Androdioecy is an important factor that determines the genetic structure of O. fragrans and there is an urgent need to conserve ancient O. fragrans germplasms especially the hermaphrodites.

Sexual system of Garcinia indica Choisy: geographic variation in trioecy and sexual dimorphism in floral traits

Most flowering plants are hermaphroditic with both stamens and carpels in the same flower. Other sexual systems are derived from ancestral hermaphroditism through one of the following pathways namely via monoecy, directly from hermaprhoditism, via gynodioecy, via distyly or via androdioecy. Sexual system in the genus Garcinia is highly diverse and includes dioecious, gynodioecious, androdioecious, polygamodioecious, monoecious and andromonoecious species. Garcinia indica Choisy (kokum tree) is reported to be polygamodioecious or gynodioecious. In the present study, sexual variation was estimated in seven populations of Garcinia indica of Western Ghats to determine the extent of variation among the populations and 14 floral traits were studied to assess the sexual dimorphism in floral traits. Four basic kinds of flowers namely, male flowers, male flowers with pistillode, female flowers with staminodes and bisexual flowers, were found in G. indica. These basic kinds of flowers occurred individually on a particular tree, producing unisexual individuals, or in combination of two, forming cosexual individuals. Thus, this species is trioecious, although the percentage of cosexual trees varied in different geographical locations. All the populations included cosexuals except one whereas pure hermaphroditic trees were present only in one. Significant differences were observed in 11 out of the 14 floral traits studied in the seven populations resulting in the diversity of sex forms. Male flowers had larger petal and female flowers were in general smaller than the other kinds. Interestingly, bisexual flowers were not always intermediate in size between male and female flowers.

Leaf Photosynthesis and Antioxidant Defense in Male and Hermaphrodite Tree of A Critically Endangered Legume, &lt;i&gt;Gymnocladus assamicus&lt;/i&gt; Kanjilal ex P.C. Kanjilal

Photosynthetic pigment content, photosynthesis rate and antioxidant defense components were studied in leaves of male and hermaphrodite trees of an endemic and critically endangered leguminous tree Gymnocladus assamicus Kanjilal ex P.C. Kanjilal in Indian Himalayas to ascertain the differential physiological behavior between two different breeding types. Significant differences were noticed between male and hermaphrodite trees during leaf flushing stage and between leaf flushing and seed setting stage in hermaphrodite trees. During flushing period, pigment content and photosynthetic rates were significantly higher in hermaphrodite tree compared with its male. Similarly, reduced ascorbate (AsA) and glutathione (GSH), and their redox states were substantially higher in hermaphrodites than those in male tree undergoing flushing stage. By contrast, low levels of ascorbate peroxidase, dehydroascorbate reductase and glutathione reductase jeopardized scavenging of H 2 O 2 and regeneration of AsA and GSH in male plant, consequently resulting in over-accumulation of H 2 O 2 and high level of lipid peroxidation in leaves of male tress, marking the onset of oxidative stress, despite the high level of superoxide dismutase, catalase and guaiacol-peroxidase in male. No such situation was encountered in hermaphrodite trees during leaf flushing, although a significant decline of physiological fitness was observed after its entry into seed setting stage. Concomitant with reduction in photosynthetic capacity, there was a marked decrease in radical-scavenging capacity, leading to rise in H 2 O 2 level in leaves. Accumulation of malondealdehyde suggested oxidative damage in hermaphrodites, which may be instrumental for low photosynthetic capacity, high pollen sterility and reduction in number of healthy reproductive population of G. assamicus .

Greater mycorrhizal colonization of unisexual morphs than of hermaphroditic morphs of Jacaratia mexicana during flowering and fruiting in central Mexico

Different sexual morphs of dimorphic and trimorphic populations of plants have different demands for resources correlating with phenotypic and ecological dissimilarities among morphs. Few studies have investigated the variations in mycorrhizal symbiosis across the sexual morphs of trimorphic plant populations. Here, we report seasonal variations in the mycorrhizal colonization of the roots of female, male and hermaphroditic trees of Jacaratia mexicana under field conditions in central Mexico. Mycorrhizal colonization was low in the rainy season, when J. mexicana bears only leaves, but high in the dry season when it flowers and fruits. In the dry season, the mycorrhizal colonization of female and male trees was over twofold higher than that of the hermaphroditic trees, and all three morphs had low mycorrhizal colonization in the rainy season. The lack of seasonal variation in the mycorrhizal colonization of hermaphroditic trees, together with other available evidence, supports the idea that hermaphroditic trees of J. mexicana might have some physiological disadvantages compared with male and female trees.

Assaying for Pollen Drift from Transgenic ‘Rainbow’ to Nontransgenic ‘Kapoho’ Papaya under Commercial and Experimental Field Conditions in Hawaii

In 1992, papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) was discovered in the Puna district of Hawaii island where 95% of the state of Hawaii’s papaya was being grown. By 1998 production in Puna had decreased 50% from 1992 levels. A PRSV-resistant transgenic papaya ‘Rainbow’ containing the coat protein gene of PRSV was released commercially in Hawaii in 1998, and saved the papaya industry from further devastation. In the ensuing years since the release of the transgenic papaya, a number of farmers grew hermaphrodite nontransgenic ‘Kapoho’ papaya in close proximity to plantings of hermaphrodite transgenic ‘Rainbow’ papaya. These plantings provided a unique opportunity to assay for transgenic-pollen drift under commercial conditions. Between 2004 and 2010, assays for the GUS (beta-glucuronidase) transgene in embryos were done to study transgenic-pollen drift in commercial ‘Kapoho’ plantings and in replicated field plots. Very low pollen drift (0.8%) was detected in fruit of ‘Kapoho’ trees in the border row of one plantation when 90 embryos were assayed per fruit, while no pollen drift was detected in four other commercial plantings in which eight embryos were tested per fruit. Pollen drift averaged 1.3% of tested embryos in field plots where individual hermaphrodite ‘Kapoho’ trees were adjacent to two or four ‘Rainbow’ trees. In contrast, 67.4% of tested embryos were GUS positive in similarly located female ‘Kapoho’ trees. The very low transgene flow to close-by ‘Kapoho’ plantings is likely due to the fact that hermaphrodite trees are used commercially in Hawaii and that these trees are largely self-pollinated before the stigma is exposed to external pollen.

Phylogeographic patterns of Calophyllum Braziliense Camb. (Calophyllaceae)based on the psbA-trnH cpDNA locus

Background Past climate changes have severely influenced the current distribution of species and their genetic diversity. Phylogeography is the study of the principles and processes governing the geographic distributions of genealogical lineages [1]. South America has the world’s largest area of swamps, floodplains and wetlands in general [2]. Brazil’s major wetlands cover 2% of the country’s huge territory [3]. However, from a plant ecology standpoint, Brazilian freshwater wetlands are largely unknown and the scarce data available refer mostly to flooded forests of the Amazon [4]. Calophyllum Braziliense Camb. (Calophyllaceae), also know as guanandi, jacareuba or landim, is a canopy tree species typical of waterlogged areas from South and Central America. This species occurs in the humid tropical forests of Central America, Amazon Forests, Atlantic Forest (including restingas); and in the riverines forests of the Cerrado biome (brazilian savannah) [5,6]. However, unlike other species typical of flooded areas, C. Braziliense shows none of the morphological features common to flood-adapted plants. Calophyllum Braziliense is a hermaphroditic tree pollinated by bees. Its seeds are animal (mainly by bats) or water dispersed. The timber has excellent characteristics and is widely used. Calophyllum. Braziliense is also used in vegetation restoration programs and its leaves extract presents antiinflammatory activity [7]. This study examines the phylogeographic patterns of C. Braziliense based on the cpDNA intergenic region psbA-trnH. Methods Twenty four populations of C. Braziliense were sampled from Costa Rica (10° 12’N, 83° 47’W) to the Parana State in Brazil (25° 34’S, 48° 27’W). Samples were collected from about 5-10 adult trees in each population, totaling 192 individuals. Total DNA was extracted from leaves or cambium using the CTAB procedure described by Doyle & Doyle [8]. After a screening for cpDNA amplification and polymorphism in C. Braziliense, the psbA-trnH intergenic regions was selected [9]. Sequences were aligned using CLUSTAL-W implemented in the MEGA 4 software. The cpDNA haplotypes were defined by analyzing the sequences with DNASP 4.01. The genetic diversity indexes were estimated in ARLEQUIN 3.01. The phylogenetic relationships among the haplotypes were estimated using the median-joining algorithm implemented in NETWORK 4.1. An analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) was performed in ARLEQUIN. A spatial analysis of molecular variance (SAMOVA) was conduced using the SAMOVA 1.0 software. To evaluate the hypothesis of population expansion, neutrality tests were computed in DNASP and ARLEQUIN.

Antioxidant and Cytotoxic Activities of Carob Tree Fruit Pulps Are Strongly Influenced by Gender and Cultivar

Extracts from fruit pulps of six female cultivars and two hermaphrodite Portuguese carob trees [(Ceratonia siliqua L., Fabaceae)] exhibited strong antioxidant activity and were rich in phenolic compounds. The extracts decreased the viability of different human cancer cell lines on a dose- and time-dependent manner. Gender and cultivar significantly influenced the chemical content and the biological activities of the extracts. Extracts from hermaphrodite trees had a higher content of phenolic compounds, and exhibited higher antioxidant and cytotoxic activities. Among females, cv. Aida had the highest radical scavenging activity and total content of phenolics, Mulata the highest capacity to inhibit lipid oxidation and Gasparinha the strongest cytotoxic activity on HeLa cells. The decrease in cell viability was associated with apoptosis on HeLa and MDA-MB-231 lines. (+)-Catechin and gallic acid (GA) were the main compounds identified in the extracts, and GA contributed to the antioxidant activity. Our results show that the antioxidant and cytotoxic activities of carob tree fruit pulps are strongly influenced by gender and cultivar, and provide new knowledge about the advantages of hermaphrodite trees over female cultivars, namely, as a source of compounds with biological interest, which may represent an increase of their agronomic interest.

Phytochemical Profile, Antioxidant and Cytotoxic Activities of the Carob Tree (Ceratonia siliqua L.) Germ Flour Extracts

This work aimed to evaluate the phytochemical content and to determine the antioxidant and cytotoxic activities of methanol extracts of the carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua L.) germ flour. The extracts were rich in phenolic compounds, had considerable antioxidant activity, and reduced the viability of cervical (HeLa) cancer cells. The chemical content and the biological activities of the extracts were significantly affected by gender and cultivar. Female cultivar Galhosa had the highest levels of phenolic compounds, and the highest antioxidant activity. Extracts from the hermaphrodite trees and from the female cultivars Galhosa and Costela/Canela exhibited the highest cytotoxic activity. The most abundant compound was theophylline. The phenolic content was correlated to both antioxidant and cytotoxic activities. Our findings provide new knowledge about the health implications of consuming food supplemented with carob germ flour.

Sexual differences in flower defense and correlated male-biased florivory in a plant-florivore system

Male-biased florivory is a prominent phenomenon in the interaction between plants and florivores, and is potentially related to the evolution of flower traits and sex expression; however, its adaptive significance is not well understood. We studied florivory in the geometrid moth Chloroclystis excisa utilizing flower buds of a sexually polymorphic shrub, Eurya japonica, to reveal relationships between flower sex and moth oviposition preference, moth larval performance, and plant phenolics composition. In the field, C. excisa exploited flower buds on male and hermaphrodite trees but never those on female trees. In the laboratory, moths showed a strong oviposition preference for male over female flower buds, and larvae did not survive on female buds. Mortality was caused solely by feeding on the calyx covering the female bud. Female calyces contained higher concentrations of total phenolics and condensed tannins than did male calyces. These results suggest that substantial sexual differences in defense against florivory may have evolved in association with the differentiation of flower sexes and that a strong preference for the weakly defended flower sex may have evolved in florivores as a counter-adaptation.