Context Of Heritage Research Articles

The Evolution of Philosophical Interpretation in Islam: From Classical to Modern

This research examines the evolution of philosophical interpretation (tafsir falsafi) from the classical to the modern period within the context of the Islamic intellectual heritage. Philosophical interpretation, integral to the journey of Muslim scholars since the classical era, serves as a "gateway" to the progress of Islamic thought. However, the philosophical nature of this interpretation has sparked controversy and is deemed problematic from an epistemological perspective, becoming a focal point of debate among the Muslim community. The research employs a library research method, utilizing various literature sources as supporting evidence, with a primary focus on both primary and secondary data. The findings indicate that the emergence of philosophical interpretation is linked to the translation of Greek works into Arabic. Some fully reject or accept it, while others integrate it with Eastern traditions. Overall, a comprehensive interpretation fully incorporating the philosophical style has not been found; usually, this style is expressed separately through writings that do not specifically interpret the Quran. The epistemology of early-generation philosophical interpretation tends to be peripatetic, involving the use of reason in discussing aspects such as divinity, the afterlife, and scientific disciplines. Some figures or philosophers relevant to the philosophical interpretation of Quranic verses include al-Kindi, al-Farabi, the Ikhwan al-Shafa order, and Ibn Sina.

Cultural Assessment as the Meeting Point in the Dialogue Between Heritage Studies and Architectural Practice—The Adaptive Reuse of Trinity College, Coimbra (Portugal)

More than a century after Riegl took the first steps in the theory of value that characterised the 20th century, conservation is now being challenged from the perspective of understanding heritage intervention projects. Critical transformation of heritage, based on knowledge, modifies the characteristics of what is of value, its significance and its materiality. This work process deals with questions related to citizens’ perceptions, where consensus is sought to agree on what has value in a heritage context and how intervention projects affect this consideration. This article represents a revision of heritage methodology insofar as it establishes a contemporary dialogue between architectural practice and heritage studies through the identification and management of cultural values. It takes as a case study the Trinity College in Coimbra, by Aires Mateus. This work is framed within the declaration of the University of Coimbra as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This methodology can be extrapolated to other case studies, providing a necessary framework for understanding design action in different heritage contexts. This research attempts to equate the heritage asset’s initial values with those generated or activated after the intervention, highlighting the recognition of these values as a key objective of heritage studies and design action.

Heritage route as pilgrimage. Visiting the battlefield in Ossów

ABSTRACT Scholars have recently been paying more attention to the relationship between religion and heritage, which has brought a deeper focus to processes of ‘sacralisation of heritage’ and ‘heritagisation of religion’. I take this reflection in the direction of discerning how religious practice often underpins the creation of heritage. The case study I tackle here centres on the anniversary celebrations of the Battle of Warsaw fought during the Polish-Soviet war of 1920. Its heritage combines military and religious aspects with a pilgrimage on a section of the Camino de Santiago leading to the battlefield in Ossów to form one of the commemorative events. Drawing from the scholarship on pilgrimages to battlefields and dark heritage, I investigate how heritage is bodily performed during this pilgrimage. I organise my argument around the notion of ‘caminoisation’ to demonstrate how global heritage contexts can be transplanted onto local planes, and how religious and heritage-making processes are entangled. Perceiving pilgrimage through the lens of ‘sensational form’, I explore how heritage and religion are framed ‘on the way’. Placing an emphasis on the embodiment allows for an ethnographic description of participants’ interactions with heritage and religion and for research into how these categories are performed in practice.

The Future Museum: Integrating Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual-text with AI-enhanced Information Systems

This study examines how AR, virtual text, and AI in future museums affect visitor engagement, knowledge acquisition, emotional response, and social interaction. The study uses econometrics equations, text analysis, thematic qualitative data analysis, and agent-based modelling. The economic models show that virtual text type, depth of knowledge, personalization, accessibility options, and AR museum experiences increase visitor engagement, knowledge, emotional response, and social interaction. Thematic analysis displays visitor viewpoints such as AR curiosity, personalization, and cultural significance, while correlation matrices indicate their relationships. Bayesian econometrics, text analysis, thematic qualitative data analysis, and agent-based modelling are used to explore museum visitors' interactions with augmented reality, virtual text, and AI-enhanced information systems. These devices improve visitor engagement, social connection, emotional response, and information collection. Self-reported data biases, context biases, and rapid technological advancement limit the study. Museums can benefit from user-centric technology, AR, personalization, and cultural knowledge. The main findings reveal that these technologies significantly increase museum visitors, emphasizing that future museum administration and design must carefully adopt new technology. The findings may affect museum staff, designers, and decision-makers. Learning important technology factors improves AR, virtual text, and AI-enhanced information system design and deployment decisions. UX design prioritizes visitor choices, while immersive and integrated displays connect museum experiences. These practical implications force museums to actively and practically integrate technology to stay relevant. The project's findings, practical insights, and visitor experiences will improve future technological and cultural organisation research. The whole process contributes to the discussion on how emerging technologies affect museum experiences and innovation and decision-making in the ever-changing cultural heritage context.

Community, Socialisation, and Empowerment in Cultural Game Jams with Youth Citizens

This paper examines social and collaborative elements of Cultural Game Jams developed and implemented in the large-scale Europe Horizon research and innovation project, EPIC-WE: Empowered Participation through Ideating Cultural Worlds and Environments (2023-2026). The project explores and develops transdisciplinary collaboration and co-creation across cultural heritage institutions, creative industries, higher education institutions, and youth citizens (ages 16-25) towards Cultural Game Jam interventions across three European sites: Óbidos (Portugal), Hilversum (Netherlands), and Aarhus (Denmark). The Cultural Game Jams are held at cultural heritage sites and are aimed towards value-sensitive game design and youth empowerment. This paper explores Cultural Game Jams as a potential format for enabling and developing youths’ empowered participation, communality, and cultural socialisation by analysing the first Cultural Game Jam (2024). Framed by a Design-Based Research methodology and guided by experimental and short-term ethnography and design experiments, the analyses draw from qualitative empirical material, e.g., interviews, participatory observations, field notes, and the Cultural Game Jam participants' reflective process and design documentation. The analyses illustrate how co-creating games within cultural heritage contexts can develop youth perceptions of community, cultural socialisation processes, and individual/collective empowerment. Furthermore, the paper offers insights into the co-creation of games as new expressions of cultural heritage through epistemic collaboration and cultural participation in game jams while discussing possibilities for enabling new experiences of empowered participation, social learning, and community among youth citizens.

ML Approaches for the Study of Significant Heritage Contexts: An Application on Coastal Landscapes in Sardinia

Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information Science (GIS) techniques are powerful tools for spatial data collection, analysis, management, and digitization within cultural heritage frameworks. Despite their capabilities, challenges remain in automating data semantic classification for conservation purposes. To address this, leveraging airborne Light Detection And Ranging (LiDAR) point clouds, complex spatial analyses, and automated data structuring is crucial for supporting heritage preservation and knowledge processes. In this context, the present contribution investigates the latest Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies for automating existing LiDAR data structuring, focusing on the case study of Sardinia coastlines. Moreover, the study preliminary addresses automation challenges in the perspective of historical defensive landscapes mapping. Since historical defensive architectures and landscapes are characterized by several challenging complexities—including their association with dark periods in recent history and chronological stratification—their digitization and preservation are highly multidisciplinary issues. This research aims to improve data structuring automation in these large heritage contexts with a multiscale approach by applying Machine Learning (ML) techniques to low-scale 3D Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS) point clouds. The study thus develops a predictive Deep Learning Model (DLM) for the semantic segmentation of sparse point clouds (<10 pts/m2), adaptable to large landscape heritage contexts and heterogeneous data scales. Additionally, a preliminary investigation into object-detection methods has been conducted to map specific fortification artifacts efficiently.

Stalin and His Influence on Artistic Conflict in the Novella «Belshazzar's feasts» by F. Iskander

The subject of the article is a profound analysis of Stalin's influence on the artistic conflict presented in the novella "Belshazzar's feasts" by F. Iskander. The main objective of the research is to identify how the political figure of Stalin shapes and develops the artistic conflict in Iskander's work. The obtained results not only reveal the significant impact of Stalin on the characters and events in the examined piece but also highlight key directions of the artistic conflict, emphasizing its dynamics within the context of historical heritage. Stalin plays a significant role in shaping the plot lines and characters, and his influence extends to all aspects of the work. The obtained results cover a broad area of literary studies, providing valuable material for criticism.Additionally, this article may prove beneficial to authors, graduate students, and scholars deepening their understanding of the literary process. The research methodology encompasses a literary-critical approach, structural analysis, psychological aspects, semiotics, and the study of symbolism. This investigative work not only reveals Stalin's influence on the artistic conflict in the novella "Belshazzar's feasts" but also opens a new level of understanding of this impact. The analysis confirms that Stalin is not merely a presence in the work but genuinely acts as a significant catalyst, shaping and stimulating the development of the artistic conflict. This contribution makes a meaningful impact on literary studies, providing a profound understanding of the influence of historical figures on the creative process. Unveiling how political figures affect characters, plot, and the overall atmosphere of a work enriches the methodological arsenal of literature researchers. This approach not only offers a fresh perspective on Iskander's creativity and its interaction with historical context but also enhances the overall comprehension of how political histories are reflected in artistic creations.

The Future Museum: Integrating Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual-text with AI-enhanced Information Systems

This study examines how AR, virtual text, and AI in future museums affect visitor engagement, knowledge acquisition, emotional response, and social interaction. The study uses econometrics equations, text analysis, thematic qualitative data analysis, and agent-based modelling. The economic models show that virtual text type, depth of knowledge, personalization, accessibility options, and AR museum experiences increase visitor engagement, knowledge, emotional response, and social interaction. Thematic analysis displays visitor viewpoints such as AR curiosity, personalization, and cultural significance, while correlation matrices indicate their relationships. Bayesian econometrics, text analysis, thematic qualitative data analysis, and agent-based modelling are used to explore museum visitors' interactions with augmented reality, virtual text, and AI-enhanced information systems. These devices improve visitor engagement, social connection, emotional response, and information collection. Self-reported data biases, context biases, and rapid technological advancement limit the study. Museums can benefit from user-centric technology, AR, personalization, and cultural knowledge. The main findings reveal that these technologies significantly increase museum visitors, emphasizing that future museum administration and design must carefully adopt new technology. The findings may affect museum staff, designers, and decision-makers. Learning important technology factors improves AR, virtual text, and AI-enhanced information system design and deployment decisions. UX design prioritizes visitor choices, while immersive and integrated displays connect museum experiences. These practical implications force museums to actively and practically integrate technology to stay relevant. The project's findings, practical insights, and visitor experiences will improve future technological and cultural organisation research. The whole process contributes to the discussion on how emerging technologies affect museum experiences and innovation and decision-making in the ever-changing cultural heritage context.

Assessing Creativity and User Experience in Immersive Virtual Reality with Cultural Heritage Learning

Virtual reality (VR) technology is widely used in the field of education and cultural heritage learning. However, few studies have focused on the impact on creativity regarding the use of different interaction modalities by users in cultural heritage learning. Furthermore, it is controversial whether VR can enhance user experience and learning outcomes. The study utilized a mixed research approach combining qualitative and quantitative methods, where qualitative data was collected using open-ended interviews, simultaneously quantitative data was collected using learning outcomes, intrinsic motivation, workload, self-report of creativity and expert assessments of creativity. A mixed research approach combining qualitative and quantitative methods was used; creativity self-reports were used to collect qualitative data, and learning outcomes, intrinsic motivation, and workload data were collected for the quantitative findings.90 university students were randomly assigned to the text group (TG), the video group (VG), and the immersive virtual reality group (IVRG), with 30 students in each group. The study assessed whether creativity, user experience and learning outcomes differed when using different interaction modalities in a cultural heritage context. The results demonstrated that the text interaction modality outperformed the other two groups in learning outcomes and expert assessments of creativity performance, while the IVRG performed better in self-report of creativity and user experience. In addition, participants in TG had higher workloads and poorer user experiences compared to the other two interaction modalities. This study encourages that different interaction modalities should be selected more appropriately depending on the purpose. The study found that interaction modalities creativity can be applied to digital cultural heritage and education and informs interaction design for the HCI community.

Heritage and cinema: curatorial design of moving image art in Chinese urban heritage sites

This study investigates the curatorial design and relationship between cinema and urban heritage buildings by examining their visual interaction. Building on the ideas of “narrative architecture” and “the curatorial,” it focuses on a space-related structure that indicates post-production approaches to mediating and translating moving image art. Four heritage buildings in China are selected and categorized into “narrative space” and “spatial narrative” to identify how curatorial practices make the contemporary nature of cinema and the diachronic nature of heritage compatible. In this context, narrative architecture uses associative imagination as a form of metonymy to reconfigure the physical order of exhibition spaces. The concept of expanded cinema juxtaposes contingency and inevitability in perceptions, allowing the present to represent the past and the past to inspire the present. Moreover, the curatorial design acts as the intermediary that reconciles and constructs a responsive and productive relationship between heritage and cinema. Ultimately, this study aims to contribute to the broader discourse on integrating contemporary art within heritage contexts, providing practical insights, and theoretical reflections relevant to both substantial heritage rejuvenation and contemporary curatorial practices.

The Australian orphanage museum: heritage and activism

ABSTRACT Hundreds of thousands of Australians live with the dire aftermath of having been institutionalised as children in the national ‘Care’ network of orphanages and children’s homes. In 2023 the Australian Orphanage Museum (AOM) was opened, both to memorialise the experiences of children whose early lives were blighted by out-of-home Care (OOHC), and to facilitate activism aimed at gaining justice for those now-adult Care-leavers. The article in part utilises the author’s lived experience as a Care-leaver activist to summarise the rise of Care-leaver activism, placing it in a heritage context as it applies to the institutions themselves. It examines the role of the AOM in collecting and displaying apparently mundane objects that have profound meaning for individual stakeholders, and in preserving archival material documenting the early activist groups. Various forms of past and contemporary Care-leaver activism are discussed, and examples of successful and less successful campaigns are examined. The AOM is shown to perform a vital role in providing affirmation for Care-leavers, advocating on their behalf to the wider community, and working in conjunction with other activist groups and projects to aid researchers in the field.

GIS-Based Risk Assessment on Sea Level Rise and Flooding in Alsancak Harbour Behind Area

According to climate change projections outlined in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 6th Assessment Report, sea levels are expected to rise between 0.37 and 1.88 meters by 2150. The rise in sea level poses a significant threat to coastal areas, including industrial heritage zones frequently developed around ports. Alsancak Harbour Behind Area is a significant location due to its essential industrial heritage. The main objective of the research is to evaluate the potential risks related to floods and long-term sea level rises in the Alsancak Harbour Behind Area. Thus, the research aims to assess the potential risks associated with flooding and long-term sea level rise in the Alsancak Harbour Behind Area within the context of industrial heritage. It also measures the area's resilience to these risks and discusses planning decisions. The ‘Coastal Risk Screening Tool’ was used to create a coastal flood map according to determined three different scenarios. The result shows that the valuable industrial heritage buildings such as the Coal Gas Factory, Old Flour Mill-II and Tariş Alcohol Factory, new high-rise residential areas, port facilities and transportation arteries are at high or medium risk, especially in 2100 and 2150.

Evolution of heritage and development in Liverpool's waterfront over 40 years

The recent delisting of Liverpool’s World Heritage Site has highlighted the adverse impacts of ongoing urban developments on the city’s heritage. This study aims to address the critical question of how Liverpool can safeguard its heritage following the loss of its World Heritage status. As this status withdrawal implies a lack of international policy consideration, it raises important questions: What additional measures should be implemented? How could we reassess Liverpool's heritage in this new context? To tackle these issues, we investigate the changing relationship between safeguarding heritage and urban development on Liverpool Waterfront’s Historic Urban Landscape over the past 40 years. This study analyses the impact of developments on Liverpool’s heritage values, specifically focusing on Integrity, Authenticity, and Outstanding Universal Value. By employing a novel, top-down heritage impact assessment methodology, we evaluate the influence of urban and architectural developments on these values. This methodology is distinguished by its comprehensive comparative analysis of diverse elements drawn from heritage policy documents, spanning both tangible and intangible domains. In addition, we conducted interviews with experts familiar with Liverpool's heritage context to deepen our understanding of developmental impacts. The analysis framework comprises three case study areas and their associated developments: the adaptive reuse of the Albert Dock Complex (1981–1988), the Pier Head Developments (2007–2013), and the Stanley Dock Conservation Area (2021 onwards). The findings indicate that adaptive reuse schemes have been reasonably successful in preserving heritage values, whereas certain urban interventions have had detrimental effects. This study underscores the need for stricter regulations and broader stakeholder involvement to protect Liverpool's heritage. Further research is recommended, incorporating more development case studies and examining successful urban interventions in other heritage cities, to strengthen Liverpool’s heritage safeguarding strategies amidst evolving urban development pressures.

Public attitudes towards the display of non-adult mummies in the Capuchin Catacombs of Palermo, Sicily

ABSTRACT The Capuchin Catacombs of Palermo are one of the most visited sites on the island of Sicily and are home to one of the world’s largest assemblages of human mummies. Within the framework of a multidisciplinary project aimed at investigating the biohistories of non-adults buried at this site, the authors wished to better understand how visitors felt about the display of these young individuals and whether they had prior knowledge of these mummies before their visit. In order to capture guest feedback, questionnaires were distributed to 105 visitors in September 2022. While there were no clear-cut patterns based on the demographic and social attributes of visitors, this research revealed some recurring themes. Several visitors felt that there should be signs warning guests of the Children’s Room due to the large number of young individuals displayed in this area. Furthermore, visitors felt that more information was needed throughout the site and queried whether the non-adults, or their kin, had consented to their display. These issues could be addressed by the inclusion of information boards in the catacombs. The findings of this research ultimately have implications for the way in which non-adult remains are displayed in catacombs and other heritage contexts.

A Study on Chinese-English Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Shanghais Intangible Cultural Heritage under the Theory of Functional Equivalence

In todays era of rapid globalization, effective cross-cultural communication and precise translation work are more vital than ever. Cultural-loaded words, which carry the nuanced meaning to particular cultures, stand at the forefront of this cultural exchange. Shanghai is an international metropolis renowned for its abundant and diverse intangible cultural heritage. Given this rich tapestry of cultural treasures, the demand for an accurate and good translation is imperative. Ensuring that the essence of Shanghai's cultural heritage is accurately preserved and communicated across linguistic boundaries is therefore a crucial task in todays interconnected world. This paper delves into the challenges and strategies involved in translating the cultural-loaded words from Chinese into English within the context of Shanghais intangible cultural heritage. Taking the Functional Equivalence Theory as the theoretical framework, various translation methods including literal translation, transliteration, and free translation are examined in this research, emphasizing their effectiveness in preserving cultural meanings. Practical applications and challenges in translating terms with culturally nuanced terms are demonstrated by analyzing the case studies from the Illustrated Encyclopedia of Shanghai Intangible Cultural Heritage. This research not only highlights the significance of balancing cultural context and intelligibility in between source language (SL) and target language (TL), but also demonstrates the role of Functional Equivalence Theory as a vital tool for facilitating cultural exchange. In conclusion, the paper provides valuable insights into the complexities of translating cultural-loaded words and presents approaches for translating cultural-loaded words in Shanghais intangible cultural heritage.

Introducing WALKER – Safeguarding Cultural Heritage through Evacuation Run Maps

The crisis management cycle contains the step Preparedness, in which the development of disaster plans takes place. Run plans for fire fighters are a well-established means for enhancing preparedness in public buildings. A wide array of plans is available, serving to aid firefighters in swiftly orienting themselves during emergency situations on-site. These plans may also include detailed information as needed, providing tactical insights into critical elements within the building. In this practitioner paper, we present the adaptation of run plans to the realm of cultural heritage preservation. We utilize the existing format for the communication of information about the safe handling of cultural heritage to the command staff and the fire fighters. These cultural heritage escape plans offer guidance on the safe handling, evacuation procedures, and the prioritization of cultural heritage items in the case of an emergency and can be added to the existing tactical firefighting plans in public cultural heritage institutions. The evacuation plan format has been developed by the Munich County Fire Fighters and was manually implemented for all cultural heritage objects of the Bavarian Palace Department. The format has proven beneficial. With this format, we aim to enhance the preparedness of cultural heritage sites against natural disasters. Given the inherent sensitivity of cultural heritage objects, which require careful handling, these escape plans encompass instructions for the secure dismantling and evacuation of these items to designated safe areas. Furthermore, we introduce the software WALKER, a specialized tool designed for the creation of evacuation plans tailored to cultural heritage contexts. WALKER has been deployed for test usage for cultural heritage institutions for testing and evaluation of its potential. Both evacuation maps and WALKER are part of an integrated crisis management for cultural heritage and can be classified as part of the Preparedness step in the crisis management cycle. Furthermore, when the plans are implemented during the response, they can also be considered part of the phase Response.

Architectural Porosity: Reading The Change of Inhabitation in Urban Heritage Area

Architectural Porosity: Reading The Change of Inhabitation in Urban Heritage Area

Adaptive Reuse of Cultural Heritage

This research explores the critical intersection of spatial development and conservation models for regional sustainable development with a focus on the urban dimension of reuse potentiality. Adaptive reuse stands as a vital strategy in the preservation and revitalization of cultural heritage sites worldwide. This paper explores the multifaceted dimensions of adaptive reuse within the context of cultural heritage, examining its significance, challenges, and innovative approaches. Through a comprehensive review of literature and case studies, this study elucidates the diverse methodologies employed in adapting historical structures for contemporary uses while safeguarding their intrinsic cultural value. It investigates the socio-economic benefits accrued from adaptive reuse initiatives, including heritage tourism promotion, community revitalization, and sustainable development. Moreover, the paper addresses the ethical considerations and conservation principles guiding adaptive reuse practices to ensure the preservation of authenticity, integrity and significance of cultural heritage assets. By synthesizing theoretical frameworks with practical insights, this research contributes to the discourse on sustainable heritage management and underscores the imperative of adaptive reuse as a dynamic tool for safeguarding cultural heritage for future generations.

Visitors’ experience in a coastal heritage context: A segmentation analysis and its influence on in situ destination image and loyalty

Understanding visitors’ actual behaviour is key for tourist destinations to define strategies for different subgroups of experience-based visitors. The few studies that have analysed the influence of the intensity of visitors’ on-site experience on the formation of destination image also considered intentions and did not analyse its influence on loyalty. Also, existing research on previous experience with the destination or experiential familiarity has considered repeat visitors as a homogeneous group and failed to identify different patterns of experience. This study aims to overcome these gaps by grouping visitors based on their degree of experience (i.e., previous and on- site experience related to coastal and maritime cultural heritage activities) and ascertaining the extent to which a) the impressions of the destination and b) degree of loyalty of the visitors in subgroups differ. The sample included 720 questionnaires from domestic and international visitors in Aveiro, Portugal, leading to three groups with varying degrees of past and on-site experience: “destination enthusiasts”, “destination and heritage enthusiasts” and “destination and heritage discoverers”, thus supporting the intersection of these variables as valid for market segmentation. All groups presented dissimilar cognitive images and different levels of loyalty, but no differences were found in the affective image.

Non-Destructive and Non-Invasive Approaches for the Identification of Hydroxy Lead-Calcium Phosphate Solid Solutions ((PbxCa1-x)5(PO4)3OH) in Cultural Heritage Materials.

Lead-calcium phosphates are unusual compounds sometimes found in different kinds of cultural heritage objects. Structural and physicochemical properties of this family of materials, which fall into the hydroxypyromorphite-hydroxyapatite solid solution, or (PbxCa1-x)5(PO4)3OH, have received considerable attention during the last few decades for promising applications in different fields of environmental and material sciences, but their diagnostic implications in the cultural heritage context have been poorly explored. This paper aims to provide a clearer understanding of the relationship between compositional and structural properties of the peculiar series of (PbxCa1-x)5(PO4)3OH solid solutions and to determine key markers for their proper non-destructive and non-invasive identification in cultural heritage samples and objects. For this purpose, a systematic study of powders and paint mock-ups made up of commercial and in-house synthesized (PbxCa1-x)5(PO4)3OH compounds with a different Pb2+/Ca2+ ratio was carried out via a multi-technique approach based on scanning electron microscopy, synchrotron radiation-based X-ray techniques, i.e., X-ray powder diffraction and X-ray absorption near edge structure spectroscopy at the Ca K- and P K-edges, and vibrational spectroscopy methods, i.e., micro-Raman and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The spectral modifications observed in the hydroxypyromorphite-hydroxyapatite solid solution series are discussed, by assessing the advantages and disadvantages of the proposed techniques and by providing reference data and optimized approaches for future non-destructive and non-invasive applications to study cultural heritage objects and samples.