Herder Households Research Articles

Impact of temperatures on grassland transfer strategy: Evidence from the Qinghai-Tibet plateau in China

The increasing severity and complexity climate change present significant challenges to agricultural and social activities. This study investigates the effects of extreme temperatures on grassland transfer strategies, utilizing micro-level survey datasets obtained from pastoral areas of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in China, which are then matched with weather data. Employing the piecewise linear method and the temperature bins approach, the results reveal that extreme high temperature weather has a positive and significant effect on grassland transfer decisions. Specifically, each additional day of high-temperature weather throughout the year increases the overall probability of grassland transfer by 0.52%. Additionally, the analysis reveals a U-shaped relationship between temperature and grassland transfer-in decision, with the turning point occurring in the of 5–8 °C range. Furthermore, the findings indicate that grassland transfer decisions are predominantly influenced by moderating effects of factors such as the grassland quality and non-pastoral income. Moreover, herder households characterized by high income levels and younger demographics exhibit a notable capability in rapidly applying adaptive strategies to cope with temperature variations. Projections for future climate change scenarios indicate that extreme temperatures will significantly negatively impact grassland transfer-out, while positively influencing transfer-in.

Collective action in the pastural area of Inner Mongolia, China: Evidence from a lab-in-the-field experiment

The degradation of grasslands is a pressing global issue. Extensive research has explored the implementation of collective action as a means to ensure the sustainable use of grassland resources. However, empirical analysis of its impact in the field is lacking. Therefore, we conducted a lab-in-the-field experiment to evaluate the intensity of herders’ participation in collective action and estimated its impact on grassland conservation and livestock production at herder household level. As a robustness check, we performed a principal component analysis to measure herders’ willingness to participate in collective action. The empirical results show that collective action has significant positive effects on grassland quality and livestock number. A mechanism analysis indicates that herders who are more actively engaged in collective action are more likely to adopt rotational grazing management practices, leading to better grassland quality and a higher number of livestock. A heterogeneity analysis reveals that the benefits of collective action on grassland conservation vary based on resource endowments and individual characteristics, including grassland area and social network. This study makes a significant contribution to the study of sustainable grassland management that promotes the coupling development of grassland protection and livestock production.

Mongolian Pastoralist Parents’ Experiences in Managing Their Primary School Children’s Living Arrangements

Sending children, especially six-year-old ones, to school put pressure on pastoralist or herder households to balance their livestock herding needs and their children’s schooling needs at the same time. Due to remote campsites located in isolated rural areas far from any schools, pastoralists need to arrange a place for their children to stay during the school year. In this interpretive phenomenological study, we explored pastoralist parents’ experiences in managing different living arrangements for their primary school children during the school year. We conducted semi-structured interviews with five pastoralist parents from a remote county (an administrative division under a province) in Mongolia. Living arrangement options included staying in a boarding school dormitory, staying at a relative’s place, and staying with mothers in split households. The pastoralist parents’ own school experiences, the presence of first-grade school children, boarding school conditions, and family resources were found to be important factors for deciding the best living arrangement. We recommend that the government agencies should work on improving conditions of school dormitories and on providing better educational opportunities for pastoralists and their children.

Subsidy-Dominated Non-Farm Income Improves Herder Household Livelihoods and Promotes Income Equality in North Tibet, China

The non-farm sector is critical in supporting sustainable economies, alleviating poverty, and improving human well-being. However, the drivers of non-farm income and how it impacts income inequality remain underexplored, especially in alpine regions worldwide. Herein, we conducted face-to-face interviews using semi-structured questionnaires with 665 herder households across 54 villages in North Tibet from 2018 to 2020. We assessed the role of non-farm income in household economies and explored the determinants of household income using basic statistical methods, Gini coefficient analysis, and mixed-effects modeling. Our results showed that non-farm income accounted for approximately 80% of the total household income. It contributed to lower income inequality in rural North Tibet, with government subsidies playing a more vital role than wages and business income in this reduction. Results indicated that the number of migrant workers was the most significant positive predictor of both non-farm income and total household income, whereas livestock units dominated farm income. Given the modest contributions of livestock-derived income (~5%) and wage and business revenues (~18%) to overall earnings, this study suggests that policies should primarily focus on strengthening rural livestock husbandry. Simultaneously, it is imperative to foster environments that encourage entrepreneurship and non-farm activities and to expand access to skill-based training. Such initiatives and measures are essential for diversifying livelihood strategies and improving resident welfare in North Tibet.

Household energy consumption of herders on the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau: Profiles of natural and socio-economic factors

In remote areas, people experiencing persistent poverty still face challenges related to energy shortages and air pollution. Due to the escalating global climate change crisis, herding communities in the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau remain vulnerable to significant threats related to energy security and accessibility. These communities are vulnerable because they occupy underdeveloped regions and depend heavily on traditional energy sources. To explore this issue, we conducted a comprehensive questionnaire-based survey involving 473 herders across 13 counties on the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau. The findings revealed that per capita energy consumption in herder households averaged 2021.793 kgce/year. Noncommercial energy sources constituted a substantial 61.66%, with the predominant one being cow dung, and refrigerators are the highest energy consumption household appliances. By applying geographically weighted regression (GWR), we examined seven key natural and socio-economic factors influencing solid energy use. These factors included annual per capita household income, the highest level of education, indoor and outdoor oxygen concentrations, the labor force population, housing size, and altitude. Notably, the first three variables exhibited negative correlations, while the rest demonstrated positive correlations. The impact of oxygen concentrations on household energy consumption was particularly significant, as demonstrated by the notable correlation. In this study, we elucidated the intricate structure and determinants of energy consumption structure within herders.

Projected distributions of Mongolian rangeland vegetation under future climate conditions

Abstract Mongolian herder households maintain the health and condition of their livestock by adapting to the characteristics of the local vegetation distribution. Thus, predicting future vegetation changes is important for stable livestock grazing and sustainable rangeland use. We predicted the distributional extent of rangeland vegetation, specifically desert steppe, steppe and meadow steppe communities, for the period 2081–2100, based on vegetation data obtained from a previous study. Rangeland vegetation data collected in Mongolia (43–50° N, 87–119° E) between 2012 and 2016 (278 plots) were classified into community types. Species distribution modeling was conducted using a maximum entropy (MaxEnt) model. Distribution data for desert steppe, steppe and meadow steppe communities were used as objective variables, and bioclimatic data obtained from WorldClim were used as explanatory variables. CMIP6-downscaled future climate projections provided by WorldClim were used for future prediction. The area under the curve values for the desert steppe, steppe and meadow steppe models were 0.850, 0.847 and 0.873, respectively. Suitable habitat was projected to shrink under all scenarios and for all communities with climate change. The extent of reduction in potential suitable areas was greatest for meadow steppe communities. Our results indicate that meadow steppe communities will transition to steppe communities with future climate change.

Innovation of grassland ecological governance systems: Synergy between government regulation and grassroots governance

Previous studies have revealed that grassroots governance has played active roles in protecting grassland ecology, however, the synergistic relationship between government regulation and grassroots governance in regulating herders' overgrazing behavior has been overlooked. Our study addresses this research gap using the fixed effects model based on a panel dataset of 711 herder households in pastoral areas of China. The findings show that the grassroots governance measures, i.e. informal institutions and punishment, can reduce overgrazing by 32.8% and 35.5%, respectively. Regarding government regulation measures, grazing monitoring by higher-level governments reduces overgrazing, in contrast to the positive effect of hiring grassland managers. We also find that grazing monitoring from higher-level governments weakens the inhibitory effect of grassroots informal institutions and punishment on herders' overgrazing; grassroots informal institutions attenuate the positive effect of hiring grassland managers on overgrazing. Hence, this study suggests that the government should be more attentive toward the coordinated development of government regulation and grassroots governance rather than dealing separately with the two.

Analysis of Carbon Emission Characteristics and Influencing Factors of Herder Households: A County-Scale Investigation of the Sanjiangyuan Region on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau

With further urbanization, household consumption firmly plays a key role in China’s national carbon emissions. However, current research concerning carbon issues has mainly focused on urban household consumption, and few studies have paid attention to herder households, leading to a research gap in the field of low-carbon shifting related to nomadic economies. In this study, we interviewed more than one-thousand herder households in the Sanjiangyuan region of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau in China. The household carbon emissions and their influencing factors were investigated across the herder households of 15 counties. Our findings revealed the following: (1) There exist differences in the amounts of household carbon emissions and their compositions in the Sanjiangyuan region. From the perspective of spatial distribution, the emission hotspots are mainly concentrated in the eastern part of the Sanjiangyuan region. (2) At the prefecture level, average personal emissions were larger in the Hainan Prefecture (3.26 t ce/year), while they were approximately 1.36 times that of the Huangnan Prefecture (2.4 t ce/year), though with smaller personal emissions. The indirect carbon emissions of the four prefectures all occupied larger percentages of household carbon emissions that were mainly contributed by food consumption and housing. (3) Family type was the main diver influencing personal carbon emissions in the Huangnan Prefecture, Guoluo Prefecture, and Yushu Prefecture. The more people living in the household, the lower the per capita carbon emissions. However, the effect size of potential carbon reductions was weakened when the number of family members rose to over three. (4) We propose that grazing prohibitions and low-carbon dietary shifts would contribute to low-carbon herder livelihoods, especially for small-sized households that should be peer-to-peer targeted by regional government propaganda, which may help to strengthen the implementation of in-depth low-carbon promotions across the Sanjiangyuan region and even the overall Qinghai–Tibet Plateau.

Determinants of Herders’ Satisfaction with the Grassland Ecosystem Compensation Policy: A Case Study of Gansu Province, China

This study investigated herders’ satisfaction with the implementation effects of the Grassland Ecosystem Compensation Policy (GECP) in Sunan (subsidy hierarchization) and Gannan (subsidy harmonization), China. Survey data from 140 randomly selected herder households were analyzed using descriptive statistics and ordered logistic regression to identify the factors influencing herders’ satisfaction. The results showed that in Sunan, 47.89% of respondents expressed satisfaction with the GECP. Their satisfaction positively correlated with changes in native grass, ecological compensation income, and reduced inedible grass. Conversely, it exhibited negative associations with the ethnic background of the household head, livestock numbers, and willingness to relocate. In Gannan, a substantial level of dissatisfaction prevailed (69.57%). However, satisfied herders had connections with changes in native grass, income diversity, and ecological compensation income. Significantly, this study highlights that ecological compensation income and changes in native grass consistently influence herders’ satisfaction regardless of the subsidy design. These findings offer valuable insights for improving herders’ satisfaction with the implementation effects of the GECP in regions with diverse ecological subsidy designs. Additionally, it presents a fresh perspective for scholars to analyze the GECP under different ecological subsidy frameworks further.

Cost-Benefit Analysis of Herders’ Household Business Scale in the Multi Household Grassland Management Patterns: A Case Study of Maqu County in Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

This study conducted an analysis of total production costs, gross production values, and net margins across varying scales (small, medium, and large) within herder households operating under the multi-household management pattern. Data was sourced from a random sample of 35 herder households representing six multi-household management patterns in Maqu County, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The results revealed that average total production costs per sheep unit were $168.43, $107.36, and $92.89 for small, medium, and large-scale operations, respectively. Gross production values in these scales were $243.50/SSU, $245.23/SSU, and $239.53/SSU. Significantly, large and medium-scale herder households achieved higher net margins, at $146.64/SSU and $137.87/SSU, while small-scale households obtained $75.06/SSU. An intriguing revelation is that net margins for large and medium-scale households predominantly fall within the range of $100.01/SSU to $200.00/SSU, signifying that while scaling may curtail total production costs per sheep unit, it does not assure enduring increases in net margins. These findings hold paramount implications for policymakers as they reassess the feasibility of upscaling multi-household management pattern operations for grassland ecological restoration on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. While scaling up can yield cost efficiencies, it does not inherently translate into sustained net profit growth. Hence, astute consideration of these insights is imperative in evaluating the potential of scaling up multi-household management patterns for grassland ecological restoration initiatives.

Analysis of Labor Productivity in Single and Multi-household Grassland Management Patterns: A Case Study in Maqu County, Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

This study investigated labor productivity in meat and milk/dairy production within single and multi-household management patterns, based on primary data collected from 156 randomly selected herder households in Maqu County, Tibetan Plateau. The results showed that in the rotational grazing system, herder households in both single and multi-household management patterns achieved higher labor productivity for meat production (70.36 Kg/man-day and 51.21 Kg/man-day, respectively) compared to the overall study households (40.89 Kg/man-day). In contrast, within the continuous grazing system, the single-household management pattern recorded lower labor productivity for meat production (23.04 Kg/man-day). Significantly, regional variations in the distance between pastures and market centers led herder households in the single-household management pattern within the continuous grazing system to achieve superior labor productivity for milk and dairy production (19.74 $/man-day) compared to the overall study households (15.44 $/man-day). In the rotational grazing system, labor productivity for milk and dairy production stood at 12.63 $/man-day for the single-household management pattern and 8.30 $/man-day for the multi-household management pattern. These findings underscore the complexities associated with achieving high labor productivity simultaneously in both meat and milk/dairy production within the same grassland management pattern. While the multi-household management pattern shows promise in reducing labor inputs, it also grapples with challenges in achieving substantial production levels for meat and milk/dairy products. To address these challenges, policymakers should consider follow-up measures that prioritize the simultaneous enhancement of meat and milk/dairy production within the multi-household management pattern. Special attention should be given to reducing the distance between herder households and market centers to facilitate the sale of milk/dairy products. Simply advocating for the broader adoption of the multi-household management pattern may fall short without addressing these production-related hurdles.

Valuing the plant species diversity of permanent grasslands: From the perspective of herders

Conserving plant species diversity is crucial to the sustainable development of human beings. Nevertheless, the trends toward declining species numbers and homogenization of species distributions have become increasingly evident. The monetary value of species diversity can make stakeholders put more serious attentions on the protection of species diversity, but which is difficult to evaluate. This paper combined survey data and ecological data obtained through plot sampling and geographic information system methods, to assess the value of plant species diversity in permanent grasslands for local herders who are the direct users of grasslands, and whose livelihoods and well-beings are tightly related with the ecosystem of grasslands. Based on the life satisfaction approach, we found that the monetary value of one plant species for each herder household is equivalent to 9.8% of the annual household income on average, which increases to 15.9% when the level of species evenness is higher. The results of a heterogeneity analysis revealed that the value of plant species diversity varies significantly among different groups of households. Our research introduced a new method to quantify the value of species diversity for stakeholders. The estimation of monetary value of plant species diversity will have far-reaching influence on stakeholders and policymakers involved in protecting species diversity of permanent grasslands.

Pastoral Differentiations’ Effects on Willingness to Accept Valuation for Grassland Eco-Subsidy—Empirical Study of 410 Herder Households in Grass–Livestock Balance Sub-Policy Zones in Inner Mongolia, China

China’s Grassland Eco-Subsidy Program has been implemented since 2011 to protect and sustain grassland resources and improve the economic situation of herders. In this case study, we aimed to evaluate the policy from the perspective of pastoral differentiations and their willingness to accept (WTA) the eco-subsidy. Using the contingent valuation method (CVM), we interviewed 410 herder households in the grass–livestock balance sub-policy zones across Inner Mongolia, and examined how their horizontal and vertical differentiation affected their WTA and compensation expectations in a sorted Logistic model and a Tobit model, respectively. Our findings suggest that horizontal differentiation of herders (variations of income sources and employment) promoted the WTA for the eco-subsidy and inhibited the increase in compensation expectations. A large vertical differentiation extent (income disparity) lowered the WTA but raised expectations for payment levels. Additionally, factors such as operating pasture area, precipitation, and supervision intensity had significant impacts. Grazing income remained the primary income source for most herder households, reflecting the characteristics of “the rational economic man”. Our results suggest a need for policy improvements to guide herders towards becoming “rational ecological men”. By considering this differentiation, policy makers can better tailor the program to meet the needs and expectations of diverse herder households.

Cost-Benefit Analysis of Continuous and Rotational Grazing Systems——A Case Study in Maqu County, China

The rotational grazing systems (RGS) have been advocated as a superior grazing strategy by the Chinese government based on their significant ecological advantage compared to continuous grazing systems (CGS). In practice, however, due to the low-adoption rate of RGS the favorable effect is limited. This study analyzed the total production cost, gross production value, and net margin of CGS and RGS from the perspective of cost benefits. Data were collected from telephone and face-to-face questionnaire survey of 121 randomly sampled households in Maqu County in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The results indicate that although economic benefits were achieved by herder households in both CGS and RGS, the total production costs spent on each sheep unit in RGS were higher than in the overall that of the total households, and the gross production values produced by herder households from livestock products were lower than in the overall that of the total households due to the difference in production practices. This finding suggests that higher production costs may reduce herders’ adoption rate of RGS. Furthermore, the transfer from CGS to RGS also implies that herders may have to face the challenge the change in production practices related to native grass availability, forage seeding, supplementary feeding, livestock transfer, and grazing duration. The policy implications of these findings towards the implementation of rotational grazing systems are as follows: first, policy makers can consider bringing higher economic advantages to the adopters of rotational grazing systems via incentives; Second, policy measures should assist herders to be able to adapt more easily to the production practices in RGS.

Early warning, adaptation to extreme weather, and attenuation of economic losses: Empirical evidence from pastoral China

Early warning systems (EWSs) are a critical tool for preparedness toward extreme weather; however, empirical study on the end-users of EWSs is scant. To fill this gap, we examine the effect of access to EWSs on the attenuation of economic losses, based on a unique panel household survey of 652 herder households in China's pastoral areas, which are vulnerable to natural disasters such as droughts and snowstorms. We utilize a triple-hurdle model that simultaneously estimates the determinants of three sequential dependent variables: whether an extreme weather event had occurred, whether economic losses were suffered, and the extent of economic losses. The results show that EWSs do not reduce the likelihood of suffering from economic losses; however, they are effective in attenuating the extent of losses among those who have suffered. In this study, EWSs significantly attenuated extreme weather-induced economic losses by approximately 42%. It is also shown that the determinants driving each of the three stages are heterogeneous. The mechanism analyses show that EWSs promote herdsmen's adoption of adaptation measures to extreme weather events. Our findings confirm the effectiveness of EWSs, and advocate further investments in underdeveloped EWSs in developing countries.

Herder households' livelihood strategies as a response to payments for grassland ecosystem services in China

AbstractHerder households' response is critical in determining the effectiveness of payments for grassland ecosystem services (PGES). This study aimed to comprehensively analyze the influencing factors and processes of herder households' response to PGES using the sustainable livelihood approach. Here, we were the first to classify the ways herder households respond to PGES from the perspective of livelihood strategies, and proposed a sustainable livelihood indicator framework applicable to herder household research. According to the framework, we combined path analysis and statistical analysis to carry out empirical analysis in a typical area. The results show that the response strategies could be divided into three types, which rated by popularity from low to high, were reduction in herd counts (19.1%), livelihood diversification (27.7%) and industrial upgrading (53.1% max). Their formation was influenced by various factors, such as the PGES, vulnerability context, livelihood assets, and livelihood outcomes. In general, strict supervision (influence coefficient 0.46) helped reduce livestock headcounts, especially in small and medium households, which used to be the main bodies of overloading. Households with rising living standards tended to explore off‐farm livelihoods, but there were also some households that did so because of disagreement with PGES. Households with higher vulnerability and higher livelihood assets tended to cope with the shortage of grassland through industrial upgrading, thereby achieving a balanced utilization of grassland resources. This study not only makes an important supplement to PGES and sustainable livelihood theory but also provides an important reference for grassland ecological protection practices around the world.

The impact of political status and social capital on herders' overgrazing behaviors in the pastoral areas of China

Overgrazing has become one of the main factors affecting grassland degradation over the past two decades in China. To solve this problem, the government has implemented a grassland ecological compensation policy and grazing monitoring system that is highly dependent on rural cadres. However, few studies have analyzed the impact of political status (rural cadres' identity) on overgrazing. This study reveals the impact of political status on herders' overgrazing behavior. It evaluates the moderating effect of social capital on this impact using a linear regression model based on survey data from 640 herder households in Inner Mongolia, Gansu, and Qinghai, China. The results show that herders with political status are more likely to overgraze. The level of trust in rural cadres has a positive moderating effect on the influence of political status on herders' overgrazing. Small farms with political status are more likely to overgraze compared to large farms. Grazing monitoring by local government can reduce the overgrazing of herders with political status and weaken the positive effects of political status and the trust level in rural cadres regarding overgrazing. Therefore, local governments should monitor more strictly grazing activities for herders with political status, especially those with small grassland scales, and pay more attention to the role of herders' social capital in constructing a sustainable grassland governance mechanism.

Grassland Transfer and Its Income Effect: Evidence from Pastoral Areas of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau

Under the condition of different endowment factors of herders and imperfect market mechanisms, grassland transfer can promote the redistribution and rational utilization of grassland resources, which has a crucial impact on herders’ livelihood. This study fully examined how the grassland rental market improves herders’ income and to what extent, using unbalanced panel data with 560 herder households in the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau pastoral areas. A fixed effect model was used as the baseline model. The instrumental variable approach and propensity score matching method were utilized to address the endogeneity problem and sample selection bias. Finally, the mediating effect model was used to analyze the path mechanism of grassland transfer in/out on herder income. The results showed that the total household income increased significantly after participating in grassland transfer. Grassland rent-in increased livestock income, and grassland rent-out increased non-livestock income. After correcting for the selection bias, the income effect of grassland transfer became larger. The grassland rent-in increased the livestock income by promoting production investment. Grassland rent-out increased the non-livestock income by promoting non-pastoral employment.

Effects of environmental regulation on rural livelihood diversification: Evidence from pastoral China

Previous studies on rural livelihood diversification primarily focused on its determinants and the role of cash transfers. However, little attention has been paid to the effects of environmental regulation schemes on rural livelihood diversification. This study ascertains the impact of China's Grassland Ecological Compensation Policy (GECP) on the income-generating activities and livelihood diversification of its rural recipients. We use a unique national representative survey of 722 herder households in pastoral China. A seemingly unrelated Tobit model is estimated to simultaneously account for the censored nature of the livelihood diversification of recipients and the correlation of error terms of the different livelihood activities. A latent class cluster analysis is performed to split samples into four clusters according to the characteristics of their livelihood strategies. We find a U-shaped relationship between livelihood diversification and GECP subsidies, such that the livelihood diversification index (excluding cash transfers) decreases or increases when the GECP subsidy is below or above 89,500 yuan, respectively. The present compensation levels are far below the turning point, implying that the scheme fails to achieve its objective of diversifying herders' livelihoods into off-farm sectors. Further, the herders' livelihood diversification index increased when cash transfers were included but decreased when they were excluded, reflecting the vulnerability of herders' livelihoods and their strong reliance on the compensation. Finally, the sub-group analysis reveals that cash transfers only influence the livelihood diversification of full-time, but not part-time, pastoralist households.

Herdsmen's willingness to accept compensation for grazing ban compliance: Empirical evidence from pastoral China

Payment for ecosystem services (PES) has gained popularity in balancing environmental degradation and economic development. However, many of its key features, particularly price differentiation, are often not considered during design and implementation. Taking China's grassland ecological compensation policy as an example, we empirically examine herders' willingness to accept (WTA) compensation for grazing ban compliance, based on a survey dataset of 352 herder households in the pastoral areas of the Gansu and Qinghai provinces in China. A double-bounded dichotomous choice contingent valuation design was adopted, with interval regression and bivariate probit models adjusted for potential bid anchoring utilized to obtain reliable WTA estimates. The results show that the mean WTA ranges between CNY 193 and CNY 274 per mu, which is significantly higher than the present universal compensation level. Herdsmen's WTA is significantly and positively associated with household size and having migrant worker family members, while it is negatively influenced by age, environmental perception , household income, and sandy soil. We suggest that the basic institution of China's grassland ecological compensation policy (GECP) should be reformed to allow price differentiation, bottom-up participation, and performance-dependent payments. • We examine herdsmen's willingness to accept (WTA) for grazing ban compliance. • A double-bounded dichotomous choice contingent valuation design is adopted. • Estimated WTA is substantially larger than the current compensation level. • WTA decreases with herdsmen's environmental perception. • Price differentiation and bottom-up participation should be allowed.