Herd Size Categories Research Articles

Profitability and economic viability of commercial dairy farms in trans-Gangetic plains of India

A study on assessing the profitability and economic viability of sixty commercial dairy farms was carried out in the Trans-Gangetic Plains of India. The study’s focus region, the Trans-Gangetic Plains, was found pivotal due to its significant dairy orientation and robust dairy development programs. The selected farms were classified into small, medium and large commercial dairy farms based on herd size category. The total cost per farm per year was worked out to be 90.66 lakh, 154.96lakh and 254.62 lakh in small, medium and large commercial dairy farms, respectively. The net returns per farm per year were 16.10 lakh, 52.79 lakh and 95.39 lakh in small, medium and large commercial dairy farms, respectively. The net income per income per milch animal per day was 66.76, 130.00 and 139.13 in ascending order of herd size category. The cost of milk production per litre was estimated as 31.50, 29.10 and 26.97 in small, medium and large commercial dairy farms, respectively. The return per litre was 6.10, 10.57 and 11.03 in same order of farm category. Financial assessments of dairy enterprises in this region showed that as farms grow larger, they tend to have a more substantial proportion of long-term debts. The efficiency and profitability ratios indicated that all farm sizes could recover their capital invested at least once in a year. However, medium-sized farms demonstrated a better margin of safety and efficiency in herd management than smaller or larger. The findings suggest the potential for enhancing profitability through value-added milk products and the importance of managing costs for the sustained economic viability of dairy farms. Policy formulation should emphasize capacity building for small farms, promote value addition, and ensure efficient management practices across all farm sizes.

Profit Efficiency among Dairy Farmers in Southern India: An Application of Stochastic Frontier Profit Function.

Background: Dairy farming has emerged as an important profitable enterprise in India as it is a source of income, especially for small and marginal farmers;the study aims to understand the reasons for increased profit of dairy farmers of South Indian states. Methods: The present study was undertaken in Southern Indian states during 2020-21 to estimate the profit efficiency of milk producers across different herd-size categories. Result: Maximum likelihood estimates (MLE) of specified profit function revealed that overall, prices of green fodder (0.1873), prices of concentrate (0.1072), veterinary service rate (0.0569) and herd size (0.7545), had a positive and significant impact on normalized profits, whereas prices of dry fodder (-0.0277) and labour wages (-0.1652) had a negative and significant impact on normalized profits, respectively. Overall, the mean profit efficiency of dairy farmers was found to be 58.65 per cent indicating 41.35 per cent of profit efficiency was lost due to technical and allocative inefficiencies in milk production. Results from the profit inefficiency model revealed that overall, education, herd size, herd composition and experience in dairy farming had a negative and significant impact on profit inefficiency.

Milk Producers Perceptions on Constraints in Milk Production in Maharashtra State

The study on constraints faced by farmers in the operation and management of dairy activities in milk production was conducted in the Vidarbha and Marathwada region of Maharashtra State for the year 2022-23. These regions of Maharashtra State were purposively selected due to low milk production and productivity compared to other regions of the State. Data were randomly collected from 410 milk producers of Bhandara, Yavatmal, Nanded and Latur districts of Vidarbha and Marathwada region of Maharashtra State. About 52.20 percent of milk producers belongs to the small, 30.98 percent to the medium and 6.63 percent to thelarge herd size category of milk producers. Garret’s ranking method was used to priorities the constraints. The serious constraints perceived by the milk producers were the shortage of quality feed and fodder round the year, high cost of concentrates,unavailability of veterinary facilities, unavailability of labour, lack of knowledge on improved management practices, shortage of green fodder round the year, unstable pricing policy, inadequate credit facilities, lack of information ongovernment scheme and marketing of milk and milk products.

Economics of milk production and its constraints: A case study of Himachal Pradesh

An attempt has been made in this investigation to work out the cost and returns from milk production across different milch species of animals. Tabular analysis was employed to workout the cost and returns while Garrett’s Ranking Technique (GRT)was used to identify the major constraints in milk production. The multistage random sampling technique was adopted to select the sample of 60 dairy farmers. Average milk yield per day per animal was found to be significantly higher in the case of crossbred cows (7.06 litres) as compared to local cows (2.88 litres).Similarly, net maintenance cost per milch animal per day was found to be relatively higher in crossbred cows ( 200.76) as compared to local cows ( 113.76). The per litre cost of milk production was observed to be significantly higher in case of local cows ( 35.09) followed by crossbred cows ( 26.34). The net income per day was relatively higher in case of crossbred cows ( 64.62) as compared to local cows ( 4.29), while it was found lowest in the small herd size category for local cows (0.54). The net return from crossbred cows was more than that of local cows indicating that crossbred milking cow was more economical than the local cow in the study area. High cost of concentrate, unavailability of veterinary services and low milk productivity were the major constraints in milk production in the study area. Therefore, efforts should be made to impart knowledge to dairy farmers regarding advanced animal husbandry techniques through extension services.

Economic Analysis of Milk Production: A Study of South India

"An investigation was conducted to study the economic analysis of milk production in Southern India. A total of 240 dairy farmers were selected comprising 80 each from the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The study revealed that the average gross maintenance cost of milk production per milch animal per day was higher in crossbred cow (` 234.12), followed by buffalo (` 163.82) and local cow (` 143.54), respectively. The net cost per milch animal per day was observed to be higher in crossbred cow (` 227.94), followed by buffalo (` 159.67) and local cow (` 139.93), respectively. The cost of milk production per litre was higher in local cow (` 33.13), followed by buffalo (` 31.84) and crossbred cow (` 20.99), respectively. The net return per litre was observed to be positive in case of crossbred cow (` 5.67) and buffalo (` 3.30) for all the herd size categories whereas negative net return per litre of milk was observed in case of local cow (` -3.93) for all the herd size categories because of high cost of feed and fodder and also low milk yield."

Cross-sectional study to describe bovine leukemia virus herd and within-herd ELISA prevalence and bovine leukemia virus proviral load of convenience-sampled Kansas beef cow-calf herds

Determine bovine leukemia virus (BLV) seroprevalence of adult female cattle in Eastern Kansas beef herds and the proviral load (PVL) of those cattle found to be ELISA positive. Convenience sample of 2,845 cows from 44 beef herds. BLV serostatus was determined using an ELISA antibody test (gp-51; IDEXX). BLV quantitative PCR (qPCR) status and PVL were determined utilizing a qPCR test (SS1 qPCR test; CentralStar Laboratories). The association of age, herd size, and body condition score (BCS) category on the probability of being BLV positive was evaluated with a multiple variable logistic regression analysis that used BLV status as a binary outcome, herd nested within ranch as a random effect, and BCS, herd size, and age category as fixed effects. Forty-two of 44 herds had at least 1 BLV ELISA-positive cow (95.5% herd seroprevalence). Overall, 1,564 of the 2,845 cows were BLV ELISA positive (55.0% individual animal prevalence). No association between BLV ELISA status and herd size or BCS was identified. When evaluated by age, the model-adjusted probability of being BLV ELISA positive was lowest for heifers (1 year of age, first parity) and increased until 5 to 6 years of age. Of the 1,564 ELISA-positive animals, 838 were qPCR positive (53.6%). The model-adjusted probability of being qPCR positive was not associated with age, herd size, or BCS category. This study indicated that BLV-seropositive status both as a herd classification and individual animal classification was very common in this population. Because the percentage of BLV-seropositive cows varied between herds and by age, this study provides evidence that it is essential for investigators to control for herd and age in any analysis of the association of BLV serostatus and health and production outcomes of interest. Some BLV ELSIA-seropositive cows were classified as BLV negative by qPCR, and risk factors may differ between classification status by ELISA and qPCR.

Economics of Milk Production and Resource Use Efficiency of Milk Across Different Herd Size Categories in Chittoor District of Andhra Pradesh

Background: In India dairy farming is a significant part of the rural population, providing not only supplementary income and nutritional standards but also organic manures and draught power. Andhra Pradesh ranks 5th in total milk production in India with an output of 15.04 million metric tonnes and Chittoor district is one of the leading districts for dairy farming in the state. There is an increasing trend in milk production; however, the main drawback faced by the milk producers in dairy farming is the low productivity of milch animals. Assessing the economics of milk production would be extremely beneficial in planning for the improvement of productivity of dairy animals and framing policies to increase the profitability of dairy farms. Methods: Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh was purposively selected for the present investigation. The primary data was collected from 80 respondents of which 40 each from two villages in the year 2021. The economics of milk production and the resource use efficiency of milk were computed based on collected data. Result: The per-day gross cost for maintaining local cow, crossbred cow and buffalo was found to be ₹ 161.09, ₹ 246.16 and ₹ 196.07, respectively. The overall cost per litre of milk was found to be slightly high in the case of buffalo (₹ 31.45), followed by the local cow (₹ 31.33) and crossbred cow (₹ 19.69), respectively. The net returns per litre of milk were found to be highest in the case of the crossbred cow (₹ 7.45), followed by buffalo (₹ 3.66) and local cow (₹ 0.12). It was observed that the net return per litre of milk for local cows was very less due to high feed cost, labour cost and low productivity of milk. Green fodder, dry fodder and concentrate were observed underutilized whereas labour was found to be over-utilized.

Production, consumption and marketing of milk in Eastern Region of India: Afarm level analysis

The present study was undertaken in the eastern region of India comprising of the states of Bihar, West Bengal and Jharkhand with the objective to determine milk production, consumption and marketed surplus at farm level (in continuation of the above line) The study found that, inspite of low dairy development in the region, milk production and productivity was considerably high among the sample households. An average dairy household was producing about 36 litre of milk per day having average productivity of 10 litre per day per animal which was significantly higher than national averages. The milk was drawn more from crossbred cows on Small households and from local cow and buffalo on large households. The highest milk productivity on large farms emphasize for removing the resource limitation and promote better feeding and management practices among small and medium herd size categories. The consumption of liquid milk among producer households was 207 gm per day per capita which was higher than per capita availability in the region. Of the 10 per cent of the milk production retained at household level, 40 per cent was consumed as liquid milk and 60 per cent was converted into milk products. The later share was higher among small herd size category catering to the rural non-milk producing households. The halwais/ dudhiyas/private dairies were the major marketing channel counting for 61 per cent of the total marketed surplus and only 21 per cent of the milk was sold through cooperatives. The share of milk sold through later channel by small farmers was still lower (10%) inspite of the fact that the marketed surplus per household was substantially higher (24.02 L/day). Â Â An analysis in to the factor affecting marketed surplus found that being membership of dairy cooperatives had the highest influence on marketed surplus of small farms

Pastoral livelihood pathways transitions in northern Kenya: The process and impact of drought

Recurrent droughts and long-term changes to climate, social structures, and the economy in the world’s arid and semi-arid lands have impacted pastoralists’ livelihood activities over time, resulting in different livelihood pathways. Some pastoralists continue to follow more traditional strategies of herd accumulation, while others frequently engage in livestock markets and value addition activities, and others still are dropping out of pastoralism. Using data collected over 6 years from 924 households in northern Kenya and applying a generalized structural dynamic multinomial logit model, this study quantitatively determined the dynamic transitions between livelihood categories conditional on drought incidences. From the results, there were considerable and frequent transitions between livelihood pathways within the panel period (2009–2015). Notably, many households that started in the low-cash income, larger herd size category denoted as hanging in, were transitioning to lower cash income with small herds (dropping out). At the same time, there was a great deal of back and forth between the category with low-cash income and small herd size (dropping out) and the category with higher cash income and small herd size (moving out), indicating that moving out was the only way out of poverty. Also, an increase in vegetation index from a drought season where the index was at a 10% level to a good season where the level was 90% decreased the likelihood of households dropping out from a predicted probability of 37.9 to 28.7% and increased the likelihood of moving up and moving out from 22.2 to 25.0% and 22.6 to 34.3%, respectively, unconditionally. The study findings imply that any livelihood interventions aimed at reducing the impact of drought and alleviating poverty among pastoral households should support the transition to market-oriented, relatively successful pathways and also protect households from falling back into the ranks of poverty by dropping out.

An examination of labor time-use on spring-calving dairy farms in Ireland

The seasonal workload associated with pasture-based dairy farms, combined with increasing herd sizes, has led to a renewed focus on labor time-use and efficiency on dairy farms. The objective of this study was to examine labor time-use on pasture-based dairy farms in the spring and summer seasons. A total of 82 spring-calving Irish dairy farms completed the study from February 1 to June 30, 2019 (150 d). Each farmer recorded their labor input on one alternating day each week using a smartphone app. Any labor input by farm workers not using the app was recorded through a weekly online survey. Farms with data for each month (n = 76) were classified into 1 of 4 herd size categories (HSC) for analysis: farms with 50 to 90 cows (HSC 1); 91 to 139 cows (HSC 2); 140 to 239 cows (HSC 3); and ≥240 cows (HSC 4). Total hours of labor input was similar on HSC 1 (1,821 h) and HSC 2 (2,042 h) farms, but predictably as HSC increased further, total hours of labor input increased (HSC 3: 2,462 h, HSC 4: 3,040 h). On a monthly basis, labor input peaked in February (15.4 h/d) and March (15.7 h/d). The farmer worked on average 60.0 h/wk over the duration of the study period. Hired labor and contractors completed a greater amount of work as HSC increased. Labor efficiency, as measured by hours/cow, improved as HSC increased (HSC 1: 26.3 h/cow, HSC 2: 17.7 h/cow, HSC 3: 14.3 h/cow, HSC 4: 10.9 h/cow), though there were large variations in labor efficiency within HSC. Milking was the most time-consuming task, representing 31% of farm labor input making it an important focus for potential improvements in efficiency. The next 5 most time-consuming tasks were calf care (14%), grassland management (13%), cow care (10%), repairs and maintenance (10%), and administration/business (8%). This study contributes to the understanding of labor use during the busiest (most labor demanding) time of the year on pasture-based dairy farms and points to areas where labor efficiency improvements can be made on farms. The considerable variation in farm labor efficiency observed within HSCs emphasizes the necessity for a greater focus on knowledge transfer of methods to achieve improved labor efficiency and a better work-life balance on many dairy farms. As the 2 busiest months on most dairy farms, February and March require the most focus for identification of potential labor savings.

Farmers' perception on the control of gastrointestinal parasites in organic and conventional sheep production in Sweden.

A questionnaire was sent to sheep owners in Sweden to get information about anthelmintic drug use. The survey also investigated how respondents experienced problems with gastrointestinal nematode infections (GIN) focusing on Haemonchus contortus. The response rate was 31% and included both conventional and organic farms. The use of anthelmintics was low (45%), among which a majority (76%) drenched ewes on a single occasion, mostly with ivermectin (59%) followed by albendazole (19%). Other drugs were used rarely, however, unawareness of GIN risk was high (19%), especially among respondents with few animals. Anthelmintic dose calculations were done after visual appraisal by 63% and 22% calibrated the equipment before drug delivery, which is worrying since underdosing is a risk factor for the development of anthelmintic resistance. Like with anthelmintics, the perceived risk for GIN increased with herd size both by conventional and organic farmers. Faecal examination for the presence of GIN was done by 65% of the respondents and, among their sheep, H. contortus was or had been diagnosed in 41% of the herds. Irrespective of new stock had been imported from other countries or not, common problems were reported by 5% and 7% of the organic and conventional producers, respectively. Land use and grazing management strategies differed more in relation to herd size than by production form, with a majority (47%) having their sheep grazed in several paddocks, or at least the lambs were moved when separated from the ewes at weaning (25%). In contrast set stocked grazing was mainly reported on smaller farms. Co-grazing with cattle and horses were also frequently reported irrespective of production form, but with cattle to a somewhat greater degree on larger organic farms. Wild cervids, especially roe deer, were frequently observed on sheep pastures (87%). The veterinary involvement was higher on organic (65%) than on conventional farms (53%), and only 5% considered advice unimportant. Still, some conventional and organic producers treated sheeps routinely without a prior diagnosis, against the national regulations. 46% of the respondents drenched new and replacement stock. In conclusion, although some differences were observed between conventional and organic producers, the divergences were mainly due to herd size categories. Furthermore, despite a high veterinary involvement, we identified factors which can contribute to anthelmintic use, such as poor quarantine procedures, and deworming routines that can contribute to anthelmintic resistance in H. contortus.

Economic analyses of milk production among members and non-members offarmer collectives in Saurashtra

Primary data collected for 2019-‘20 from 416 members and non-members of dairy farmer collectives (where farmers come together to market their milk collectively – this study considers a co-operative union and a milk producer company – both prominent forms of farmer collectives) in Saurashtra region of Gujarat are used to work-out the cost and returns in milk production from local cow and buffalo, and across dairy farmer categories. The analyses reveal that farmer collective organizations like co-operatives and producer companies are profitable in case of both local cow and buffalo milk production, and also for the small (1-3) and medium (3-6) herd-size category (in Standard Animal Units or SAU) of farmers. Both the overall average feed cost and Total Variable cost (TVC) per animal per day incurred by members is 12 per cent and 11 per cent less than that of non-members, respectively. Members of the co-operative receive annual bonus and members of the producer company receive annual dividends and cash incentives; with this additional benefit received by the members, their total return per litre is 25 per cent more than that of non-members. The overall average annual net returns from dairy per household for members are higher at Rs. 11,641/- compared to the returns of non-members at Rs. 3955/-. Expanding the reach of farmer collective organizations would benefit more dairy farmers by making dairy a more profitable enterprise for them.

Resource use efficiency of milk production across different herd sizes of buffaloes and crossbred cows in Middle Gujarat

The most important objective of any production unit is to co-ordinate and utilize the various resources of production in such a manner that they yield the highest net returns. As farmers are shifting from low input-low output to high input-high output and traditional and subsistence to commercial dairy farming, this study assesses the impact of resources being used optimally through herd size categories by the dairy farmers for buffaloes and crossbred cows in the Middle Gujarat region. The resource use efficiency analysis helps the dairy farmers in taking appropriate decisions regarding resource allocation without using additional resources for enhancing their income. The findings show that on an average, the costs of human labour, green fodder and concentrates had significant influence on milk yield for buffalo milk production while costs of human labour, green fodder, concentrates and veterinary and medical charges had significant influence on milk yield for crossbred cow milk production implying that one per cent increase in the use of these inputs can led to increase in the gross returns from milk. Milk production for buffaloes was in decreasing returns to scale while on an overall basis, milk production for crossbred cows was increasing returns to scale. Further, the difference between MVP and its acquisition unit price for human labour in small category, green fodder in overall category and dry fodder in marginal category in buffalo milk production and price for human labour in medium and overall category and green fodder in large category in crossbred cow milk production were found positive and significant indicating that the dairy farmers have an opportunity to increase their profit by using more of these inputs on their farms. Thus, the study concluded that only in crossbred cows, milk production was size neutral.

Assessment of Production and Utilization Pattern of Milk and Milk Products in Madhya Pradesh

The study was carried out by collecting information from 80 milk producers-cum-consumers and 50 consumers from the rural and urban areas, respectively, to assess the production and utilization pattern of milk and milk products at the household level. The selected 80 producer households were further post stratified into three categories, namely, 42 small (1-2 milch animals), 26 medium (3-4 milch animals), and 12 large (5 and above milch animals) herd size categories. The analysis revealed that indigenous cattle were dominating the bovine composition among the various species. However, buffaloes contributed the largest quantity of milk (35.79 percent), followed by indigenous cattle and crossbred cows with 34.57 and 29.64 percent, respectively. Across the various herd size categories, medium category households were contributing the highest milk (38.93 percent), followed by small (30.54 percent) and large herd size category households (30.52 percent). It was found that overall per capita milk availability and milk consumptions were 1.49 and 0.37 litres/day, respectively, in the study area. The utilization pattern show that rural consumers ed consumed 53.78 percent of their retained milk as liquid milk, whereas urban consumers consumed 46.54 percent. Overall, 49.69 percent of the total milk was utilized for intake in liquid form, while 50.31 percent was utilized for making milk products. Overall, among milk products, a nearly equal proportion of milk was utilized for making curd (22.57 percent) and ghee (22.41 percent). The proportion of milk consumed in the form of khoa (3.8 percent) and paneer (1.39 percent) was very less.

What determines the technical efficiency of dairy farmers in Sirsa cooperative milkshed?

For increasing milk production in the country, number of efforts has been made to improve technical knowledge of the farmer and ensure supply of inputs and services. The most predominant one is the strengthening of dairy cooperatives in the country under the project Operation Flood. The present study estimated the technical efficiency among farmers of the Sirsa dairy cooperative union in Haryana and determined factor affecting it. The study found that the technical efficiency of dairy farmers in the milkshed was considerably high for all herd size categories (> 80 per cent). It was the highest for medium herd size category (86 per cent) followed by large category (85 per cent). Among households of a herd-size category, technical efficiency was consistent and found to be uniform among the household as revealed by the lower value of standard deviation. The major determinants of technical efficiency were the age of the farmer, period of becoming member of cooperative society, fixed cost and the marketed surplus.

A comparative study on economics of milk production among self-help group members and non-members in Rajasthan

The present study was undertaken to determine the cost and returns from milk production across different herd size categories of self-help group members and non-members. Primary data from 160 self-help group members and 160 non-members were collected from Baran and Jhalawar district of Rajasthan during 2018-19. Its analysis showed that for members, overall average cost per litre of milk production for buffalo, local milch cow and crossbred was Rs. 32.81, Rs. 37.1 and Rs. 29.38, respectively, while, for non-members, the corresponding figures were Rs. 32.6, Rs. 37.47 and Rs. 30.25, respectively. Net return per litre of milk production was positive for buffalo and crossbred cow, while it was negative for local milch cow. Net return for all types of animals was found to be higher for members compared to the non-members, and it was found to increase with the increase in herd size.

Herd-level associations between somatic cell counts and economic performance indicators in Brazilian dairy herds

The aims of the present study were to provide a portrait of the techno-economic status of dairy herds in Minas Gerais, Brazil, particularly with respect to bulk-tank somatic cell count (BTSCC) data, and to examine the herd-level associations of BTSCC with various economic performance indicators (EPI). Data from 543 herds, 1,052 herd-year records in total, spread over 3 years (2015-2017), from the South and Southwest mesoregions of Minas Gerais State were provided by the Brazilian Support Agency to Micro and Small Companies Division Minas Gerais (SEBRAE). Herds had an average of 82 lactating cows per herd, milk yield of 17 L/cow per day, and availability of financial information via routine monthly economic surveys. The EPI data (revenue, gross margin, GM; net margin, NM; profit; break-even point; and operational profitability) of each herd was measured monthly by SEBRAE personnel, and herd-year averages of all variables were computed. Bulk-tank data (SCC, total bacterial count, content of crude protein and fat) taken by producers or dairy processors were recorded by SEBRAE personal; and corresponding herd-year averages were calculated and included in the SEBRAE database. There were 209 selected herds, which passed all edit checks, and which had data for all 3 years. The EPI (all expressed on a per-cow basis, $/cow per year) were analyzed, including the effects of region, year, log (ln) BTSCC, production level, and herd size, together with the random effect of herd nested within region. A high proportion of herds (94.6%) presented data records (herd-years) with an average BTSCC > 200 × 103 cells/mL: 37.8% of herd-year records had BTSCC between >200 and ≤400, 14.5% with BTSCC between >400 and ≤500, 25% with BTSCC between >500 and ≤750, and 17.3% with BTSCC >750. For each unit increase in ln BTSCC, revenue declined by $228.5/cow per year, GM by $155.6/cow per year, and profit by $138.6/cow per year. Herds with cows of lower production (<14 kg/d) presented lower GM ($286.8/cow per year) compared with herds containing cows producing ≥14 kg/d (≥14 and <19 kg/d = $446.5, and ≥19 kg/d = $601.9). The small-scale milk producers (<39 lactating cows) presented lower revenue ($1,914.9/cow per year) and GM ($274.5/cow per year) and consequently a negative profit (-$224.1/cow per year) compared with other herd size categories (≥39 lactating cows). The reduction in milk yield was 641 L/cow per lactation for each unit increase in ln BTSCC; this represented 9.4% of the milk yield per lactation, assuming an average milk production of 6,843.3 L/cow per lactation of cows from herds that had BTSCC ≤ 200 × 103 cells/mL. Consequently, we found a negative association of BTSCC with profit; profit declining from $227.0 to -53.1/cow per year when the BTSCC increased from 100 to 750 × 103 cell/mL. In short, the lower the BTSCC, the greater the revenue, GM and NM, profit, and operational profitability of the herds. The reduction of milk yield was the main factor associated with higher BTSCC.

A descriptive study of teat morphology, milking machine characteristics, and milking practices in a sample of Brazilian dairy herds.

The objective of this study was to describe teat morphology, milking equipment characteristics and settings, and milking practices adopted in a sample of Brazilian dairy herds. A secondary objective was to compare the study variables among herd size categories. Forty herds were visited once. A vacuum recorder was used to analyze all pulsators prior to milking. During milking, the device was mounted to a milking cluster and vacuum levels were recorded at four points (short pulsation tube, short milk tube, and mouthpiece chamber of the front and rear liners) to estimate the following variables: short milk tube vacuum (VSMT), VSMT during peak milk flow, VSMT during overmilking, liner mouthpiece chamber vacuum (VMPC) during peak milk flow, time in overmilking, total milking time, and presence of bimodal milk flow. The dataset included 678 teats from 339 cows (average of 17 teats from 8.5 cows sampled per herd) and 592 measurements from 296 pulsators (average of 14.8 measurements from 7.4 pulsators per herd). Front teats were longer and wider (4.93±1.34 and 2.58±0.71 cm) than rear teats (4.04±1.14 and 2.43±0.57 cm), respectively. Teat length was negatively associated with herd size and a higher proportion of flat teats was observed in large herds, as compared with medium or small herds. Preparation lag time was longer in small herds (median = 3.67 min) than in large herds (2.19 min). The prevalence of bimodal milk flow was 6.49%. Cows of small herds remained a longer time in overmilking than those of large herds. Higher VMPC at peak milk flow, higher pulsation rate, longer B-phase, and shorter D-phase were observed in large herds (median = 15.20 kPa, 61.93 pulses/min[p/m], 465.43 ms, and 242.01 ms, respectively), as compared with small (10.20 kPa, 58.74 p/m, 428.52 ms, and 498.14 ms) or medium (8.50 kPa, 60.46 p/m, 443.52 ms, and 264.05 ms) herds. The VSMT during overmilking (39.60 kPa) was independent of herd size category. Desirable milking practices, such as wearing of gloves, use of automatic cluster removal, use of liners in good condition, training of staff, no use of oxytocin, and reduced time in overmilking were more frequent in large and medium herds, than in small herds. Results of this study can be useful for situational diagnosis and implementation of milk quality and animal welfare improvement programs.

Economic analysis of milk production in peri-urban dairy farms of Odisha

East and South-eastern coastal plain zone of Odisha was purposively selected for conducting study. After complete enumeration farms were categorized into small, medium and large categories on the basis of milch animals using cumulative square root frequency method. A total of 120 peri-urban dairy farms were selected from two towns namely Bhubaneswar town (Khorda district) and Cuttack town (Cuttack district). Budgeting technique was used to estimate costs and returns. Capital recovery cost method was used to evaluate fixed costs and variable costs were also evaluated for estimation. From the analysis it was concluded that crossbred cows were more profitable as compared to buffaloes. Milk productivity and returns from per litre milk of crossbred cow were more than buffalo. Concentrate feeding constitute major share in total feeding expenditure. Among different herd size categories of dairy farms large farms were getting more profit per litre of milk than medium and small farms. Cost elasticity was estimated using Cobb-Douglas production function shows a negative relationship between per unit cost and milk yield.

Management characteristics of Pennsylvania dairy farms

ABSTRACT Objective Our objective was to characterize dairy farming strategies in Pennsylvania to provide baseline data for modeling and assessing economic and environmental impacts of the industry. Material and Methods The USDA’s Agricultural Resource Management Survey (ARMS) data were used to characterize management practices for 5 dairy farm strategies and 4 herd size categories. Production strategies were confinement, semi-confinement, organic, management intensive rotational grazing, and Amish (use of draft animals with no use of electricity or mobile, powered equipment). Results and Discussion Cattle breed and homegrown and purchased feed type and quantity differed significantly among the 5 strategies, whereas housing and manure management varied with herd size. Solid manure handling was used on 41% of farms, consistent with small herd sizes and wide use of tiestall housing (34% of farms). Confinement dairy farms maintained more cows with greater milk production per cow and had more crop area per cow with less reliance on purchased feeds than the weighted average dairy farm. These farms received the lowest net return per unit of milk, which is consistent with a reduction in the number of small confinement farms from the year 2000 to 2010. Although organic dairy producers had 37% greater variable costs, primarily from the high cost of organic feeds, these farms received the greatest return per unit of milk sold through a 51% greater milk price received. Implications and Applications Management practices found on Pennsylvania dairy farms around the year 2010 are documented to support further assessment of production practices and sustainability of the industry.