Helminth Research Articles

Association of parasitic diseases in the Masalli district of Azerbaijan

The article describes the associative infection of sheep with parasitic diseases. Determining the presence of helminthic and blood-parasitic diseases was carried out in sheep farms of the Masalli region of Azerbaijan. In scatological studies in animals, infection with nematodiasis caused by the nematode Nematodirus spathiger from the Trichostrongylidae family was detected, and a clinical examination of sick and recovered sheep was also carried out. Anaplasmosis and babesiosis have been registered in sheep, the carriers of which are ticks Rhipisephalus bursa. Microscopic examination of the causative agent of anaplasmosis and babesiosis is located in the center of erythrocytes, and up to 1-4 parasites can be traced in one erythrocyte. The parasites are round and pear-shaped, 1.2-5 µm in size with a pear-shaped form and 1-1.5 µm with a round one, and there are about 20-45% of babesias in 100 fields of view of a microscope. Thus, an association of parasitic diseases - nematodirosis, babesiosis and anaplasmosis has been established in the sheep farms of the Masalli region of Azerbaijan.

Modern antihelminth medications for cattle (review)

The article contains an analysis of existing modern anthelmintic drugs for cattle. Trade names of drugs are divided into groups according to the active substances that make up their composition. The article discusses in detail the spectrum of action of the studied anthelmintic drugs on parasitic worms, and also displays special instructions from drug manufacturers for the use of milk and meat from animals that have been dewormed.Even the competent use of anthelmintic drugs will not help to achieve the desired economic results from the livestock complex if the veterinary rules for keeping and feeding animals are not observed at the production site, and it is also important to correctly plan and implement all necessary veterinary and sanitary measures.

A high-throughput sensory assay for parasitic and free-living nematodes.

Sensory pathways first elucidated in Caenorhabditis elegans are conserved across free-living and parasitic nematodes, even though each species responds to a diverse array of compounds. Most nematode sensory assays are performed by tallying observations of worm behavior on two-dimensional planes using agarose plates. These assays have been successful in the study of volatile sensation but are poorly suited for investigation of water-soluble gustation or parasitic nematodes without a free-living stage. In contrast, gustatory assays tend to be tedious, often limited to the manipulation of a single individual at a time. We have designed a nematode sensory assay using a microfluidics device that allows for the study of gustation in a 96-well, three-dimensional environment. This device is suited for free-living worms and parasitic worms that spend their lives in an aqueous environment, and we have used it to show that ivermectin inhibits the gustatory ability of vector-borne parasitic nematodes. Insight box Nematodes are powerful model organisms for understanding the sensory biology of multicellular eukaryotes, and many parasitic species cause disease in humans. Simple sensory assays performed on agarose plates have been the bedrock for establishing the neuronal, genetic, and developmental foundations for many sensory modalities in nematodes. However, these classical assays are poorly suited for translational movement of many parasitic nematodes and the sensation of water-soluble molecules (gustation). We have designed a device for high-throughput nematode sensory assays in a gel matrix. This 'gustatory microplate' is amenable to several species and reveals novel responses by free-living and parasitic nematodes to cues and drugs.

NOTCH signaling inhibition after DAPT treatment exacerbates alveolar echinococcosis hepatic fibrosis by blocking M1 and enhancing M2 polarization.

Alveolar echinococcosis (AE) is a lethal helminthic liver disease caused by persistent infection with Echinococcus multilocularis (E. multilocularis). Although more and more attention has been paid to the macrophages in E. multilocularis infection, the mechanism of macrophage polarization, a critical player in liver immunity, is seldom studied. NOTCH signaling is involved in cell survival and macrophage-mediated inflammation, but the role of NOTCH signaling in AE has been equally elusive. In this study, liver tissue samples from AE patients were collected and an E. multilocularis infected mouse model with or without blocking NOTCH signaling was established to analyze the NOTCH signaling, fibrotic and inflammatory response of the liver after E. multilocularis infection. Changes in polarization and origin of hepatic macrophages were analyzed by flow cytometry. In vitro qRT-PCR and Western blot assays were performed to analyze key receptors and ligands in NOTCH signaling. Our data demonstrated that hepatic fibrosis develops after AE, and the overall blockade of NOTCH signaling caused by DAPT treatment exacerbates the levels of hepatic fibrosis and alters the polarization and origin of hepatic macrophages. Blocking NOTCH signaling in macrophages after E. multilocularis infection downregulates M1 and upregulates M2 expression. The downregulation of NTCH3 and DLL-3 in the NOTCH signaling pathway is significant. Therefore, NOTCH3/DLL3 may be the key pathway in NOTCH signaling regulating macrophage polarization affecting fibrosis caused by AE.

Distribution of rats and endoparasites zoonoses risk in Tandang village, Tembalang District, Semarang City

Rats are rodents that coexist with humans because of the abundant easily available food sources, and aggravated due to the lack of public awareness with environmental hygiene. Apart from being troublesome, rats are also intermediaries for the cause of zoonoses. Initial observations, in Tandang village, there are densely populated areas, many rats of various types were found, including Rattus norvegicus, Rattus tanezumi and possibly other types that cause zoonoses. This study aims to examine the distribution of rats and their endoparasites in the Tandang village. The research method is analytical descriptive research. Traps were set at several points around dense settlements and markets. Data obtained by conducting random sampling. From the results of detaintment, 104 rats were obtained, consisting of 5 species namely Rattus norvegicus, Rattus tanezumi, Rattus exulans, Bandicota indica. Mus musculus. Endoparasites found in intestinal organs in the form of the tapeworm Hymenolephis sp., Trichuris trichiura worm eggs, Hymenolepis sp. The distribution of rats was found in dense residential areas, with 27 rats (22.21%) Rattus norvegicus, and 21 rats (20.19%) compared to their distribution in the market. The eggs of these parasitic worms are known to cause infection to humans through objects that encounterd with soil, sewage, etc. and are eventually swallowed. Symptoms experienced when infected include diarrhea, abdominal pain, constipation, and anorexia.

Chemical modulation of Schistosoma mansoni lysine specific demethylase 1 (SmLSD1) induces wide-scale biological and epigenomic changes.

Background: Schistosoma mansoni, a parasitic worm species responsible for the neglected tropical disease schistosomiasis, undergoes strict developmental regulation of gene expression that is carefully controlled by both genetic and epigenetic processes. As inhibition of S. mansoni epigenetic machinery components impairs key transitions throughout the parasite's digenetic lifecycle, a greater understanding of how epi-drugs affect molecular processes in schistosomes could lead to the development of new anthelmintics. Methods: In vitro whole organism assays were used to assess the anti-schistosomal activity of 39 Homo sapiens Lysine Specific Demethylase 1 (HsLSD1) inhibitors on different parasite life cycle stages. Moreover, tissue-specific stains and genomic analysis shed light on the effect of these small molecules on the parasite biology. Results: Amongst this collection of small molecules, compound 33 was the most potent in reducing ex vivo viabilities of schistosomula, juveniles, miracidia and adults. At its sub-lethal concentration to adults (3.13 µM), compound 33 also significantly impacted oviposition, ovarian as well as vitellarian architecture and gonadal/neoblast stem cell proliferation. ATAC-seq analysis of adults demonstrated that compound 33 significantly affected chromatin structure (intragenic regions > intergenic regions), especially in genes differentially expressed in cell populations (e.g., germinal stem cells, hes2 + stem cell progeny, S1 cells and late female germinal cells) associated with these ex vivo phenotypes. KEGG analyses further highlighted that chromatin structure of genes associated with sugar metabolism as well as TGF-beta and Wnt signalling were also significantly perturbed by compound 33 treatment. Conclusions: This work confirms the importance of histone methylation in S. mansoni lifecycle transitions, suggesting that evaluation of LSD1 - targeting epi-drugs may facilitate the search for next-generation anti-schistosomal drugs. The ability of compound 33 to modulate chromatin structure as well as inhibit parasite survival, oviposition and stem cell proliferation warrants further investigations of this compound and its epigenetic target SmLSD1.

PARASITIC WORM OF AGILE GIBBON (Hylobates agilis F. CUVIER 1821) AND SIAMANG (Symphalangus syndactylus RAFFLES 1821) AT SERULINGMAS ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN, BANJARNEGARA

Samples feces were collected from three heads of agile gibbon and three heads of siamang using direct smear, flotation, sedimentation, and McMaster methods. Identification is achieved by using faecal cultures to obtain larvae of parasitic worm. Identification result indicated that male agile gibbon (W/I) infected by two types of parasitic worms (Trichostrongylus and Strongyloides). In contrast, female agile gibbon (W/IIa and W/IIb), placed in the same cage as a male agile gibbon are uninfected by a parasitic worm. Male siamang (S/IA) put in a different cage with others is uninfected. Male siamang (S/IB) ia infected by three types of parasitic worms (Trichostrongylus, Strongyloides, and Cooperia) while the female siamang (S/IIB) that placed in the same cage with S/IB infected with one type of parasitic worm (Trichuris). Each egg account results showed no amount exceeding 300 eggs per gram of feces. This led to the degree of infection in agile gibbon and siamang at Serulingmas Zoological Garden, belonging to a common disease. It can be concluded that the type of parasitic worms found in the agile gibbon at Serulingmas Zoological Garden namely Trichostrongylus and Strongyloides while the variety of parasitic worms found in the siamang namely Trichuris, Trichostrongylus, Strongyloides, and Cooperia.

The Prevalence of Gastrointestinal Nematodes in Livestock and their Health Hazards: A Review

Livestock plays an important role in the national economy and has a significant share in the gross domestic product of Pakistan. Parasitic diseases and worm infestations negatively affect their health, production, and reproductive performance. In addition, parasitic infestation in livestock reduces gross production values and renders huge economic losses globally. Among the parasites, the most important are nematodes. They are distributed worldwide and affect all kinds of livestock. This review aimed to elaborate on the main gastrointestinal nematodes, their mode of action, impacts on livestock and their control (physical, chemical or biological) strategies. Common examples of nematode worms infesting the livestock are Ascaris, Hemonchus, Strongyloids, Trichostrongyliods, Ostertagia, Trichuris, Dictyocaulus, Trichnellia, Enterobius, Cooperia, Gunagylonema, Chabertia, and Oesphagostomum. The gastrointestinal nematodes are detrimental to the animals’ health. Nematodes primarily affect animals’ feed consumption and efficiency, and severe ailments result in the death of the affected animals. The production and health losses primarily depend on the age of the animals, the degree of severity of worm infestation, epidemiology pattern of the parasites, management strategies of the flocks, and ecoclimatic conditions which are favorable for the worm’s infestation. To minimize these issues, farmers should be educated on the importance of intensive livestock management and environmental sanitation, as well as strategic deworming of cattle using efficient broad-spectrum anthelmintics, biological control of the parasites, and breaking their life cycle and intermediate hosts.

PALEOPARASITOLOGY OF HUMAN ACANTHOCEPHALAN INFECTION: A REVIEW AND NEW CASE FROM BONNEVILLE ESTATES ROCKSHELTER, NEVADA, U.S.A.

This study reports a new case of acanthocephalan (thorny-headed worm) eggs in a coprolite from Bonneville Estates Rockshelter in eastern Nevada and uses archaeological and ethnographic data to better understand long-term relationships between people and acanthocephalans. Acanthocephalans are parasitic worms that use arthropods as intermediate hosts in their multi-host life cycles. Though acanthocephaliasis is rare among humans today, cases have increased in the last decade, and the discovery of acanthocephalan eggs in coprolites from archaeological sites in the Great Basin suggests a deep, shared history. At Bonneville Estates Rockshelter, 9 acanthocephalan eggs were recovered using a modified rehydration-homogenization-micro-sieving protocol on a coprolite that was radiocarbon dated to 6,040 ± 60 14C BP (7,160-6,730 cal BP), pushing back the oldest evidence of human acanthocephalan infection by 3 millennia. Researchers have proposed that the paleoepidemiology of acanthocephalans may relate to subsistence practices due to overlap in locations of infection and areas where insects are part of traditional foodways. This paper considers the paleoepidemiology of acanthocephalan infection through the first combined review of paleoparasitological, ethnographic, and archaeological records in western North America. Ethnographic and archaeological records support the hypothesis that archaeological cases of human acanthocephaliasis may be linked to entomophagy. Additional parasitological analyses are advised to determine whether this distribution is the result of dietary practices, host ecology, taphonomic issues, sampling biases, or a combination of factors.

Albendazole from ovine excrements in soil and plants under real agricultural conditions: Distribution, persistence, and effects

Albendazole (ABZ), a broad-spectrum anthelmintic drug frequently used in livestock against parasitic worms (helminths), enters the environment mainly via faeces of treated animals left in the pastures or used as dung for field fertilization. To obtain information about the subsequent fate of ABZ, the distribution of ABZ and its metabolites in the soil around faeces along with uptake and effects in plants were monitored under real agricultural conditions. Sheep were treated with a recommended dose of ABZ; faeces were collected and used to fertilize fields with fodder plants. Soil samples (in two depths) and samples of two plants, clover (Trifolium pratense) and alfalfa (Medicago sativa), were collected at distances 0–75 cm from the faeces for 3 months after fertilization. The environmental samples were extracted using QuEChERS and LLE sample preparation procedures. The targeted analysis of ABZ and its metabolites was conducted by using the validated UHPLC-MS method. Two main ABZ metabolites, ABZ-sulfoxide (anthelmintically active) and ABZ-sulfone (inactive), persisted in soil (up to 25 cm from faeces) and in plants for three months when the experiment ended. In plants, ABZ metabolites were detected even 60 cm from the faeces and abiotic stress was observed in the central plants. The considerable distribution and persistence of ABZ metabolites in soil and plants amplify the negative environmental impact of ABZ documented in other studies.

A60 DOWN WITH THE SHP-1: CHRONIC HELMINTH INFECTION DISRUPTS BILE ACID HOMEOSTASIS AND SIGNALLING RECEPTOR ACTIVATION IN THE MURINE SMALL INTESTINE TO POTENTIALLY IMPACT GUT IMMUNITY

Abstract Background Helminths (parasitic worms) use immunomodulatory mechanisms to maintain their presence in the host intestines. Understanding how helminths reduce inflammation in the guts may lead to new therapeutic options for inflammatory bowel diseases. Our lab uses a helminth which infects the proximal small intestine of mice to identify new, potentially immunomodulatory molecules. In this project, we examined the impact of helminth infection on bile acids (BA)s; a class of metabolites that can function as immunomodulatory signalling molecules. To our knowledge, how helminth infection alters BA homeostasis, and the potential consequences for proximal small intestine immunity have not yet been reported. Purpose Our aims were to determine whether helminth infection alters (1) the intestinal BA pool, (2) expression of BA transporters in the small intestine, and (3) expression and/or activation of the Farnesoid X receptor (FXR), a BA signalling receptor. Method We used a murine model system to study the effects of the mouse-specific helminth Heligmosomoides polygyrus on BA homeostasis, BA transporter gene expression, and BA signalling receptors in the small intestine. Male and female littermate mice were used. Targeted metabolomics was used to assess the composition of the BA pool in the small intestine. Reverse transcription qPCR was used to quantify gene expression of BA transporters/signalling molecules in tissues. All data were segregated by sex of mice for data analysis. Result(s) We found that helminth infection disrupts the BA pool of mice, with consistent reductions in T-CDCA and T-αMCA during helminth infection. In the proximal small intestine, expression of the genes that encode the apical sodium dependant BA transporter (ASBT) and organic solute transporter alpha (OSTα) were unaffected during helminth infection, however expression of the organic solute transporter β (OSTβ) gene, which encodes half of the basal BA transporter, was decreased. Expression of Shp-1, an indicator of activation of BA receptor FXR, and expression of the Fxr gene were significantly decreased in both the proximal and distal small intestine. Lastly, expression of the gene encoding Gpbar1 trended upwards in the proximal and distal small intestine of female mice. Conclusion(s) Infection of mice with a proximal small intestine-dwelling helminth impacts BA homeostasis in the small intestine. Helminth infection decreases expression of a BA transporter in the proximal small intestine, although whether this contributes to or is caused by perturbations in the BA pool during infection remains to be seen. The downregulation of BA signalling we see during helminth infection in the proximal small intestine points to a potential functional impact on the host immune response which we now intend to explore. Understanding the immunomodulatory mechanisms used by helminths to dampen the host immune response could lead to further advancements in treating intestinal inflammatory disorders such as Crohn’s and Colitis. Disclosure of Interest None Declared

Identification and characterisation of the haemozoin of Haemonchus contortus

BackgroundMost haematophagous organisms constantly suck the host’s haemoglobin, which produces toxic free haem. This toxic haem aggregation into the nontoxic crystallisation complex known as haemozoin represents one of the most important detoxification pathways in living organisms, but very little is known about the features of haemozoin in parasitic nematodes. Here, we identified and characterised the haemozoin of an economically significant blood-sucking nematode, Haemonchus contortus.MethodsUsing electron microscopy, spectrophotometry analyses and biochemical approaches, haemozoin crystallisation was identified and characterised in parasitic fourth-stage larvae (L4s) and/or adult worms as well as L4s of in vitro culture.ResultsThe haemozoin was formed in intestinal lipid droplets of the parasitic L4s and adult worms. The characterisation of the haemozoin showed regularly spherical structures and had a 400-nm absorption peak. Furthermore, the haemozoin in in vitro cultured L4s was associated with the culture time and concentration of red blood cells added into the medium, and its formation could be inhibited by chloroquine-derived drugs.ConclusionsThis work provides detailed insight into the haemozoin formation of H. contortus and should have important implications for developing novel therapeutic targets against this parasite or related haematophagous organisms.Graphical abstract

Evidence and potential drivers of neglected parasitic helminth and protist infections among a small preliminary sample of children from rural Mississippi.

Intestinal infections with helminths (parasitic worms) and protists (single-celled eukaryotes) may be neglected health issues in low-resource communities across the United States. Because they predominantly infect school-aged children and can lead to nutritional deficiencies and developmental delays, these infections can affect lifelong health. More research is needed to understand the prevalence and risk factors of these parasitic infections in the United States. A total of 24 children (ages 0.5-14 years) from a low-resource, rural Mississippi Delta community provided stool samples for 18s rRNA amplification and sequencing to determine infection presence. Parent/guardian interviews provided age, sex, and household size to test for associations with infection. Infections were found in 38% (n= 9) of the samples. 25% (n= 6) of participants were infected with helminths (platyhelminths [n= 5]; nematodes [n= 2]), while 21% (n= 5) were infected with protists (Blastocystis [n= 4]; Cryptosporidium [n= 1]). There were no associations between infection status and age, sex, or household size. Problematically, analytical methods did not allow for more specific classifications for helminth species. These preliminary findings suggest parasitic infections may be overlooked health issues in the rural Mississippi Delta and emphasize the need for more research on potential health outcomes within the United States.

Evaluation of Anthelmintic Activity and GC-MS Characterization of Urochloa distachya (L.)

Background: The helminthiasis parasitic worm present in the gastrointestinal tract of the animal cause infection and physiological damage. This occurs due to poor sanitation, impecunious personal hygiene, low socioeconomic position, and lack of education. Aim: Urochloa distachya (Poaceae) commonly called as signal grass and used as fodder for the animal. The present investigation was undertaken to investigate the phytochemicals and to study the anthelmintic activity. Materials and Methods: The plant material was extracted by using petroleum ether and methanol in Soxhlet apparatus and the obtained extract was subjected to GC-MS analysis for the identification of the bioactive components responsible for anthelmintic activity. The anthelmintic activity was performed against earthworms (Eisenia fetida) at concentrations 12.5, 25, and 50 mg/mL using piperazine citrate as standard. Results: The GC-MS analysis of the petroleum ether extract showed five major and ten minor compounds. The major compounds were identified as Stigmasterol (14.76%); α-Amyrin (12.47%); γ-Sitosterol (10.31%); 17-(1,5-Dimethyl-3-phen ylthiohex-4-enyl) -4,4,10,13,14-pentamethyl 2,3,4,5,6,7,10,11,12-(9.12%) and β-Amyrin (8.83%). The minor compounds were D:C-Friedo-B': A'-neogammacer-9(11)-ene, 3-methoxy-, (3β)-(8.28%); Tritetracontane (7.23%); Campesterol (4.68%); Phytol (4.05%); Cholesterol (3.39%); Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester (2.20%); 2-Pyrrolidinone, 1-methyl-(1.46%); Oleic acid, 3-(octadecyloxy) propyl ester (1.27%); Squalene (0.84%) and 9,19-Cyclolanostane-3,7-diol (0.68%). The time taken for paralysis and death of Eisenia fetida parasite was noticed by methanolic and petroleum ether extract at a concentration of 50 mg/kg as compared to the standard drug. Conclusion: The anthelmintic activity of the plant was most achieved by methanolic extract which could be attributed to the presence of the Octadecanoic acid. Also, the anthelmintic active of the petroleum ether extract could be attributed to the antimicrobial, antibacterial, antifungal, and antiprotozoal activities of the Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester; Phytol; Squalene; Cholesterol, and γ-Sitosterol.

In silico design of a polypeptide as a vaccine candidate against ascariasis

Ascariasis is the most prevalent zoonotic helminthic disease worldwide, and is responsible for nutritional deficiencies, particularly hindering the physical and neurological development of children. The appearance of anthelmintic resistance in Ascaris is a risk for the target of eliminating ascariasis as a public health problem by 2030 set by the World Health Organisation. The development of a vaccine could be key to achieving this target. Here we have applied an in silico approach to design a multi-epitope polypeptide that contains T-cell and B-cell epitopes of reported novel potential vaccination targets, alongside epitopes from established vaccination candidates. An artificial toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4) adjuvant (RS09) was added to improve immunogenicity. The constructed peptide was found to be non-allergic, non-toxic, with adequate antigenic and physicochemical characteristics, such as solubility and potential expression in Escherichia coli. A tertiary structure of the polypeptide was used to predict the presence of discontinuous B-cell epitopes and to confirm the molecular binding stability with TLR2 and TLR4 molecules. Immune simulations predicted an increase in B-cell and T-cell immune response after injection. This polypeptide can now be validated experimentally and compared to other vaccine candidates to assess its possible impact in human health.

Parasitic entomophages against plant lice in vegetable agrobioticenose

The negative impact of pests on world agriculture is estimated at 1.4 trillion dollars, which is 5% of the global gross domestic product. In order to save the crops lost due to agricultural pests in the world, it is of urgent importance to develop effective and fundamentally based control measures against them. In this research, the main studied pests were Aphis craccovora Koch; Aphis gossypii Glow; Brevicoryne brassicae, Lysiphlebus fabarum Marsch, which is parasitic entomophages of Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae and sucking pests. It was found that the parasitic worm Aphis gossypii infects plant juices was on average 79.6 + 0.03. The parasite developed in this type of plant aphids lived for 7.1+0.02 days, the sex ratio was 1:5 (♂:♀). When the mummified and swollen plant aphids were examined due to infection with the parasite, it was found that the degree of damage to the host’s offspring was 67.2%.

Jumping parasitic worms use static to hit their targets

Jumping parasitic worms use static to hit their targets

Ecological Analysis of the Helminth Fauna in the Dice Snake <i>Natrix tessellata</i> (Reptilia, Colubridae) from the Low Volga Region (Russia)

The ecological analysis of the helminth fauna of the Dice snake Natrix tessellata from different habitats of the Astrakhan region in 2004, 2005, 2008 was carried out. The helminth community of the reptile includes 21 species of parasitic worms: 11 trematodes, 1 cestode, 8 nematodes and 1 acanthocephalan. Of these, 11 species are found in all the studied localities and form the basis of N. tessellata helminth fauna. Dominant and subdominant helminth species are found in snakes in all habitats as a result of the implementation of its main trophic relationships. Comparison of the helminth composition from different study sites showed a relatively high degree of similarity. Differences in the helminth fauna of the dice snake from different habitats are insignificant and relate to rare and accidental parasite species. Significant differences in the infection level of snakes with certain species of helminths were revealed. Most of the helminth species that parasitize the water snake have a complex life cycle. The infection of reptiles by them is determined to a large extent by biotic factors: fauna and the number of invertebrates (intermediate hosts of helminths) and vertebrates (paratenic and final hosts) in biocenosis.

Review Article on Microbiology

Microbiology is the study of microorganisms biological entities too small to be seen with the unaided eye. Most major advances in microbiology have occurred within the past 150 years, and several important subdisciplines of microbiology have developed during this time, including microbial ecology, molecular biology, immunology, industrial microbiology and biotech- nology. Microorganisms of various types exist in all three domains of life (the Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya), and they are by far the most abundant life forms on Earth. Microscopic biological agents include bacteria, archaea, protists (protozoa and algae), fungi, parasitic worms (helminths) and viruses. Although a small percentage of microorganisms are harmful to certain plants and animals and may cause serious disease in humans, the vast majority of microorganisms provide beneficial services, such as assisting in water purification and the production of certain foods, and many are essential for the proper functioning of Earth's ecosystems. Molecular biology has revolutionized our understanding of the diversity, function, and community structure of marine microorganisms. Increasingly, tools and techniques derived from the biomedical diagnostics and research industries are used in parallel with sensors that characterize the physical, chemical, and optical properties of ocean waters.

Livestock Reservoir Hosts: An Obscured Threat to Control of Human Schistosomiasis in Nigeria

Schistosomiasis is one of the leading neglected tropical diseases in sub-Saharan Africa. Recorded case numbers of this chronic and debilitating helminth disease indicate Nigeria to be the most endemic country within this region. National control efforts have focused intensively on restricting human contact with freshwater sources of intermediate host snails. However, limited attention has been paid to the role of livestock as reservoir hosts and the prevalence of transmission of schistosomes to humans via farmed animals. The West African nations of Mali, Senegal, and the neighbouring Niger, Benin, and Cameroon have all reported the hybridization of the closely related species of Schistosoma haematobium, which infects humans, and S. bovis, which infects cattle. As these countries share the Niger and Benue rivers, with their tributaries, there is a distinct possibility of aquatic snails infected with hybrid schistosomes migrating to become established in the Nigerian river system. Here, we report on the current state of research in Nigeria that aims to elucidate key aspects of zoonotic schistosomiasis epidemiology. Factors promoting the hybridization of Schistosoma species are highlighted, and how available control measures can be optimized to address the emergence of schistosome hybrids is discussed.