Hellenistic Philosophy Research Articles

Plotinos’ta Bilinç Kavramı

Knowing and understanding existence has always existed in the history of philosophy. One of the philosophies that try to explain and understand existence is Neoplatonism, which is the name of rebirth in Hellenistic philosophy. The founder of Neoplatonism is Plotinus. While explaining existence, Plotinus describes it with a cyclical movement from top to bottom and bottom to top. Consciousness also undertakes the task of understanding this cyclical movement. Consciousness is the state of awareness that helps humans understand their own essence and reveal the true essence of beings in the universe. To understand how this awareness occurs, we need to know Plotinus’ system, the overflow theory. The knowledge of the existence in the universe and the true essence of man is hidden in the One, the highest level of existence. One cannot remain in this secret and creates Nous that is close to its own essence. With Nous becoming aware of itself, the third stage of emanation, Spirit, occurs. Again, by turning to the One and contemplating it, the same Nous takes the forms of beings into its own essence. The Spirit formed by Nous is also in a lower position due to its distance from the One. It also maintains its connection with Bir through Nous. The soul returns to Nous and copies the images in Nous into its own essence and transfers them to the substances in the universe. The substances that take the forms receive a light illumination, even if it is less than One. Those who are deprived of this enlightenment continue to remain in darkness in the universe. The substance is bad because it receives little light. In order to understand these events in the universe, the consciousness attached to us through our Spirit becomes important. Our consciousness is an inner experience that gives us the awareness of who we are and enlightens us. With this inner experience, man can understand his place in the universe, his relationship with the universe, and his bond with his Creator. In order to have his own inner experience, his consciousness first pushes him to get rid of his own body’s desires and desires, which always limit people. If a person manages to get rid of these, he feels a lightness and liberation in his soul. The consciousness whose soul is lighter and freer establishes the bond between itself and its creator more easily. For Plotinus, this is watching the One. * This study is extracted from my master thesis entitled “Plotinos’un Mistisizmi”, supervised by Professor Doctor Sema Önal (Master’s Dissertation KırıkklaeUniversity, Kırıkkale, Turkey 2018).

Capaneus philosophus? Una nota su Zenone, Filodemo, Stazio (e Lucrezio)

Abstract This short article, which starts with a reconsideration of the philosophical characterization of Statius’ Capaneus, aims at investigating the reception of the mythical figure of Capaneus in Hellenistic philosophy. Both among the Stoics (Zeno and, maybe, Chrysippus, according to Diogenes Laertius and Athenaeus) and the Epicureans (Philodemus in P.Herc. 452 olim 463, fr. 13), Capaneus occurs in the philosophical discourse on the definition of the sage, albeit with different nuances and reference texts. Statius, Neapolitan poeta doctus with Stoic and Epicurean patroni, may have drawn insights from this intellectual environment to provide his Capaneus with philosophical overtones. In the last paragraph it is cautiously suggested, on the basis of P.Herc. 452 olim 463, fr. 13, that Lucretius’ Epicurus in the well-known prologue of the De rerum natura – a model for Statius’ Capaneus – may have been influenced by the Epicurean reception of Capaneus.

Communicating corporate social advocacy (CSA) in polarized times: A stoic turn from dancing to wrestling

In an age of increasing stakeholder activism, seen in movements like Fridays for Future, MeToo, and Black Lives Matter, and demands from socially conscious consumers, companies are expanding their roles beyond corporate social responsibility (CSR) and publicly addressing contentious social and political issues through corporate social advocacy (CSA). However, as stakeholders become more divided along ideological and socio-political lines, CSA can often lead to backlash from polarized audiences, damaging the company’s reputation, relationships, and legitimacy. This raises the question of whether it is prudent for companies to engage in CSA in polarized times? Can companies endure potential repercussions such as consumer boycotts, disaffected employees, and irate politicians and investors? This paper critiques the limitations of current approaches to communicating corporate societal responsibilities and explores Stoicism, an ancient Hellenistic philosophy, as an alternative lens to answer these difficult questions. As an applied philosophy and practical ethics, Stoicism not only offers a philosophical rationale for CSA, but also offers actionable principles to deal with agitated, divergent voices in polarized times. This paper discusses four selected Stoic thoughts and offers practical advice for managers on whether and how to effectively engage in CSA in polarized times. Recommendations include aligning CSA efforts with corporate identity, prioritizing factors within the organization’s control, remaining flexible and adaptable when encountering obstacles, and adopting reflective practice.

After Critique: Cynicism, Scepticism and the Politics of Laughter

In 1983, two philosophers, Michel Foucault and Peter Sloterdijk, engaged with ancient Cynicism and the outspokenness and laughter of Diogenes as a critical practice. Foucault and Sloterdijk did so to position themselves ‘after’ critique: ‘after’ a period of and ‘beyond’ a certain style of dogmatism and theoretical deadlocks that troubled left thinking in the early 1980s (and continue to do so today). I show how Foucault and Sloterdijk, while differing in their critical politics, both read Diogenes’ politics of truth as radical subversive otherness. While Diogenes performed this antagonizing critique from a subaltern position, his politics nevertheless risked ending up in a self-righteous intransigence to know the truth. As an alternative, I turn to another politics of laughter in Hellenistic philosophy, that of the Thracian Maid, and its sceptical impulse that is situated ‘before’, ‘beyond’ and ‘after’ critique in the space of what Hans Blumenberg calls Nachdenklichkeit (pensiveness).

The Problem of Ethical Ideals in Hellenistic Philosophy and in Psychoanalysis

Abstract: Hellenistic philosophy invites comparison with psychoanalysis. The aim of its leading currents, Epicureanism and Stoicism, was explicitly therapeutic—to enable individuals to lead a good life. Pursuing this comparison, Freud may be regarded as a successor to Epicureanism because of his hedonistic theory of motivation, his materialistic outlook, and his critique of religion. However, both Epicureanism and classical Freudianism are faced with the problem of explaining how individuals can be motivated to pursue higher ethical and cultural ideals. In this regard the Stoic critique of Epicureanism reveals parallels with later developments in psychoanalytical theory, such as the work of Klein, Winnicott, and Hans Loewald. The work of Loewald is a special interest in this context, since he strives to give a coherent account of the problematic psychoanalytic concept of “sublimation,” which is often employed in attempts to explain the redirection of psychic energy toward higher goals. Loewald’s attendant challenge to the materialism and objectivism of much psychoanalytic theory suggests that writers such as Stephen Greenblatt, who emphasize only the affinities between Epicureanism and the modern world outlook, fail to tell the full story.

A Stoic Reading of Internal Obedience in Romans 1:18–2:29

Romans 1:18-2:29 connects with Stoic philosophy in a way that would be unmistakable to a Gentile audience. While acknowledging the Hellenistic tone of the passage, this paper focuses on the Stoic elements of natural law that were broadly recognized in Rome. Particularly, Cicero’s speeches, rhetorical handbooks, and philosophical treatises provide a comprehensive account of the connections between Hellenistic philosophy and Roman law and declamation. Although no direct evidence exists to show that Paul had read Cicero, these texts reveal the culture of the Roman Christians to whom Paul was writing. Key concepts of natural law appear in Romans that contextualize Paul’s message on internal obedience in 2:27-29, although he reworks them. Paul emphasizes spirit ‘πνεῦμα’ as the generating force of obedience. Two interpretations of πνεῦμα echo Stoic perspectives as the intent opposed to the letter of the law and as the inward motivation of the person obeying the law. The third interpretation as a foreshadowing of the Holy Spirit would be new for Paul’s Roman audience. This paper demonstrates that by incorporating Stoic elements on natural law, Paul presents the central significance of internal obedience in a way that would be understandable to his Christ-believing auditors and readers in Rome.

Promoting a New Kind of Education: Greek and Roman Philosophical Protreptic, by Daniel Markovich

Promoting a New Kind of Education: Greek and Roman Philosophical Protreptic, by Daniel Markovich

The Lingering Hellenism

More and more times, the failure of the predictions did not consist from their insufficiently developed techniques. On the contrary, the more these techniques have evolved, the more the reflection of reality and human aspirations have been blurred within the predictions. Social sciences have the responsibility to rediscover the ancient sources of human knowledge. The purpose of this article is to present a number of social environments in which Hellenistic philosophy has been employed over time providing solutions that have surpassed those offered by other areas of social science.

Imam Gazzali: A Great Philosopher of Islam

Imam Gazzali is known one of the most prominent and influential philosophers, theologians, jurists, logicians and mystics of the Islamic Golden Age. He is considered to be the 5th century’s mujaddid, means a renewer of the faith, who, according to the prophetic hadith, appears once every hundred years to restore the faith of the Islam and its community. His works were so highly acclaimed by his contemporaries that al-Ghazali was awarded by the honour of the title “Hujjat al-Islam” means “Proof of Islam” Gazzali believed that the Islamic spiritual tradition had become moribund and that the spiritual sciences taught by the first generation of Muslim had been forgotten. This belief led him to write his mugnum opus entitled ‘Ihyaulumad-din’ (The Revival of the Religious Science). Among his other works, the Tuhfat al- Falasifa (Incoherence of the philosophers) is a landmark in the history of philosophy, as it advances the critique of Aristotelian science developed later in 14th century in Europe. Others have cited his opposition to certain stands of Islamic philosophy as a detriment to Islamic scientific progress. Besides his work that successfully changed the course of Islamic philosophy the early Islamic Neo-Platonism that developed on the grounds of Hellenistic philosophy, for example, was so successfully criticized by al- Ghazzali that it never recovered—he also brought the orthodox Islam of his time in close contact with Sufism. It became increasingly possible for individuals to combine orthodox theology and Sufism, while adherents of both camps developed a sense of mutual appreciation that made sweeping condemnation of one by the other increasingly problematic.Al-Ghazzali occupies a unique position in the history of Muslim religious and philosophical thought by whatever standard we may judge him. Al-Subki went so far in his estimation of him as to claim that if there had been a prophet after Muhammad, al-Ghazzali would have been the man. Various spiritual phases developed by him. He was in turn a canon-lawyer and a scholastic, a philosopher and a skeptic, a mystic and a theologian, and a moralist. His position as a theologian of Islam is undoubtedly the most eminent. Through a living synthesis of his creative and energetic personality, he revitalized Muslim theology and reoriented its values and attitudes.His combination of spiritualization and fundamentalism in Islam had such a marked stamp of his powerful personality that it has continued to be accepted by the community since his time. His outlook on philosophy is characterized by a remarkable originality which, however, is more critical than constructive. In his works on philosophy one is struck by a keen philosophical acumen and penetration with which he gives a clear and readable exposition of the views of the philosophers, the subtlety and analyticity with which he criticizes them, and the candour and open-mindedness with which he accepts them whenever he finds them to be true. Nothing frightened him nor fascinated him, and through an extraordinary independence of mind, he became a veritable challenge to the philosophies of Aristotle and Plotinus and to their Muslim representatives before him, al-Farabi and ibnSina. The main trends of the religious and philosophical thought of al-Ghazali, however, come close to the temper of the modern mind. The champions of the modern movement of religious empiricism, on the one hand, and that of logical positivism, on the other, paradoxical though it may seem, would equally find comfort in his works. The teachings of this remarkable figure of Islam pertaining either to religion or philosophy, either constructive or critical, cannot, however, be fully understood without knowing the story of his life with some measure of detail, for, in his case, life and thought were one: rooted in his own personality. Whatever he thought and wrote came with the living reality of his own experience.

Whose Fall? What Hellenism? Christianity's Fall into Hellenistic Philosophy Revisited

Many scholars have demonstrated the flaws in the claim that Christians sold out to Hellenistic philosophy soon after the apostles’ death. However, these same scholars have failed to account for the pervasive intuition that something was indeed troubling in this period. This paper argues that instead of a falling into Hellenistic philosophy, some in the early church were subtly seduced by scientia. The use of philosophy as a legitimate and helpful tool for Christian intellectual engagement with all of life soon led to the metastasis of philosophy from its position as a tool in the pursuit of Gospel ends to an end itself. By the middle of the 5th century, a particular metaphysic was enshrined as the measure of the catholic, apostolic faith delivered once for all, thereby demanding that right speech and thought about God must be philosophical. It is argued that this shift is not a natural outworking of biblical principles but alien to them. Philosophy has its place in Christian intellectual engagement and proclamation, but it cannot take the centre without drastic and detrimental consequences.

Терпкий вкус спасения (к вопросу использования Климентом Александрийским корня -στυφ-)

For describing the opposite (punishing and encouraging) methods of divine pedagogy, Clement of Alexandria used metaphors related to taste and medicine. God appears to him to be not a strict judge, punishing sinners, but a caring and wise doctor, prescribing bitter/tart medicine for them. Clement compares harsh but salutary experiences (mental suffering, fear) with astringents. He interprets physical punishment, which is written about in the Book of Proverbs (Prov. 23:13-14), as moral. In his opinion, Hellenic philosophy formed and strengthened morals in advance (προ-τυποῦσα καὶ προ-στύφουσα) (Strom. I, 16, 80, 6), and he intends to reinforce those with the help of the divine Scriptures, using the latter as an astringent (ἐπι-στύψω) (Paed. III, 2, 9, 1). Wateriness (ὑδαρότης, ὑδαρές, ὑδατῶδες) in some cases is associated with depravity, and reproof is regarded as an astringent medicine, relieving of excessive liquid and designed to stop the spread of sinful ulcers. The Alexandrian theologian draws the readers’ attention to points that are important to him, using both verbal play (for example, ἐπιστῦφον… σταφυλῆς) and the polysemy of words (for example, the verb ἐπι-στύφειν has the meanings ‘to exert an astringent effect’ and ‘to reprove’. Clement was not the only one who wrote about the usefulness of censure and astringents. In this he followed in the footsteps of authors such as Plato and Plutarch. The perception of God as a Physician became characteristic of the Orthodox Church and influenced the understanding of the essence of penance, considered as the healing of the penitent.

The Two 'Greek Buddhas'

This article discusses the influence of Indian Buddhism on Greek Skepticism and their philosophical method of stress management through the Greek philosopher Pyrrho of Elis. That influence was the subject of two books with similar titles mentioning the “Greek Buddha,” as Pyrrho was called by Nietzsche. Both books, one written in Greek from a layman’s perspective approximately 40 years ago and one written in English from a scholarly perspective approximately 6 years ago, discussed the similarities of the Eastern and Western traditions in terms of the goal of serenity, ataraxia. The book published in 1984 was the first one in Greece to link Greek Hellenistic Philosophy to Oriental Wisdom and especially to the early Philosophy of Buddhism. Both traditions offer a practical way of philosophical management of everyday stress and suffering through the mentality of suspension of judgement and non-attachment to certainties.

Пиама Гайденко и философы-шестидесятники

This article is an essay on the life and work of Piama P. Gaidenko. I argue that Gaidenko belonged to the informal community of philosophers of the Sixties who sought to bring about a radical renewal of Soviet philosophy. However, unlike most of them, ever since her post-graduate years she had been a religious philosopher. Her works The Tragedy of Aestheticism, The Evolution of the Concept of Science and Breakthrough to the Transcendent are the most expressive evidence of this. They defend a moral philosophy based on faith and opposed to the Hegelian apology of speculative reason. Gaidenko insists that philosophically meaningful faith is compatible with scientific rationality. A strictly rational account of the philosopher’s mission and of the relationship of philosophy with art, religion, and science, she argues, ought to be an indispensable component of a moral philosophy based on faith. In the paper I pay special attention (as did Gaidenko herself) to the problem of making the philosophical heritage relevant and the concept of existential philosophy in Gaidenko’s work. The essay is supplemented by a review of Gaydenko’s re-published, little-known article “Apocalypticism, Chiliasm and Hellenic Philosophy” (2000). In it I focus mainly on the relation between philosophy and Christianity and the transformation of Utopianism in an era of deepening secularization.

The Concept of Apokatastasis as a Symbol of Human Equality and Religious Inclusion

This article analyzes the notion of apokatastasis, first as it appears in the Greek philosophical tradition and then in the context of Christian thought. It shows how the cosmic theory of eternal return unfolded within early currents of Hellenic philosophy, and subsequently how the personal dimension of apokatastasis grew out of those traditions, where questions about the fate of humanity became primary. The article then points to the fundamental philosophical assumptions of apokatastasis in its cosmic and personal forms. Christian thought, in the process of its evolution, made significant use of Greek methodology and concepts. One of the theories transferred to the Christian context concerned the notion of universal salvation (apokatastasis). Such thinkers as Origen, Gregory of Nyssa and John Scotus Eriugena developed the concept into its mature form. Although apokatastasis has been condemned on numerous occasions, it has survived in Christian teaching. From a secular perspective, it can be regarded as a symbol of the equity of all people, beckoning us in the direction of the notion of religious inclusion. As such, it ought to be construed as translating into respect and care for the other person sic et nunc.

The Normativity of Law in Nature Revisited: Natural Law in Late Hellenistic Thought

In this paper I revisit nature as a source of normativity for law in the later Hellenistic period, that is beyond the opposition of law and nature in the early classical period, Plato’s and Aristotle’s naturalism, or the early Stoics’ conception of the common law. I will focus on the first century BCE, when the expression ‘natural law’ gained prominence, reconstructing its origins in the interaction between Hellenistic philosophers and the Roman elite, including jurists. I argue that for the jurists the Stoic doctrine of law in nature offered a theoretical underpinning for their unique practice of dispute resolution, whereas for the Stoics this Roman practice offered an unexpected opportunity to instrumentalise their conception of law.

A PLATONIC ARGUMENT FOR THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL IN CICERO (TVSCVLANAE DISPVTATIONES 1.39–49)

AbstractAn argument in Cicero's Tusculan Disputations (Tusc. 1.39–49) defends psychic immortality by reference to the physical constitution of the soul. This article argues that this ‘Physical Argument’ should be interpreted as a reception of Plato's doctrine of the soul within the philosophical paradigm of the Hellenistic era. After analysing the argument, it is shown that Cicero's proof recasts elements of Plato's Phaedo, in particular the kinship between the soul and the heavens and the soul's essentially contemplative nature, within a corporealist cosmology. The article also argues that Cicero formulates his argument to oppose the Stoic view that the soul's survival after death is only temporary. The Physical Argument emerges as a modernization of Platonic thought, putting Plato into dialogue with contemporary Hellenistic philosophy. Cicero, too, emerges as a more adept philosophical author than is often supposed.

Hellenistic Philosophy in Contemporary Intellectual Culture

The article deals with the place of Hellenistic philosophy in contemporary culture. It is established that the revival of interest in Hellenistic philosophy began at the end of the XX century and was associated with the research of P. Hadot and M. Foucault. The idea of these authors about Hellenistic philosophy as an art of living based on certain spiritual practices has become widespread in modern intellectual circles. It is shown that the philosophical teachings of Hellenism, especially Stoicism and Epicureanism, claim today to be a spiritual guide to life. Modern psychotherapy turns to Stoicism for help in the treatment of psychological disorders. Some ideas of Hellenistic philosophers continue to remain relevant in the field of socio-political relations.

1Cor 15,40–41: Paul and the Heavenly Bodies

Abstract Interpreters who have claimed that Paul viewed the heavenly bodies of 1Cor 15,40–41 as living beings have used two basic arguments that are each beset by inherent weaknesses. One enumerates the views of various Hellenistic philosophers and others concerning the animate nature of the stars. The other argument claims that all usages of σῶμα in Paul refer to organic entities. Scholars have often ignored handbooks such as those of Aetius that include many alternative views. Paul based his affirmations on sense experience and probably believed that the heavenly bodies were creations of God — but not animate beings. A corollary of this conclusion is that Paul’s statements about heavenly bodies do not indicate anything about the composition of the σῶμα πνευματικόν in 1Cor 15.

Об упадочном характере эллинистической философии

The purpose of the article is to identify the factors that influenced the formation of the idea of the decadent nature of Hellenistic philosophy. It is established that Hegel and E. Zeller played an important role in the formation of this idea. The formation of the idea of the inferiority of Hellenistic philosophy was influenced by the problem of sources. Serious gaps in the sources led to a distorted view of the philosophy of Hellenism. Underestimation of the philosophical teachings of Hellenism is the result of the idea of their moral and practical orientation and a low level of speculative and scientific. The negative attitude towards the philosophy of the Stoics, Epicureans and skeptics was promoted by the idea of the dominance of individualism in these teachings. The last factor is the thesis about the decadent nature of the Hellenistic era, which was caused by the loss of political freedom by the Greeks

Spiritual Humanism: A Call to Creativity in Sufi Studies

Chinese philosopher Tu Weiming (1940-) has spent a lifetime in dialogue with cultural and spiritual traditions beyond the sanjiao or ‘three religions’ (Confucianism, Daoism, Buddhism) of the Sinic world. This engagement has included sustained intercourse with the Abrahamic monotheisms and Hellenic philosophy, Hinduism and Indian spirituality, and a variety of indigenous heritages. The outcome of such cross-cultural ferment has been the elaboration of a ‘spiritual humanist’ alternative to the secular humanism of post-Enlightenment modernity. We begin by introducing Tu’s concept of Spiritual Humanism in general and his engagement with the Islamic world in particular. Adonis is then identified as a natural ally; his Sufism and Surrealism is presented as a case study in Spiritual Humanism with obvious relevance for Sufi Studies. Contemporary Sufi Studies discourse, this paper ultimately argues, should likewise not restrict itself to hermetic philological analyses of traditional sources; following Adonis’s example in Sufism and Surrealism, it should embrace the creative reelaboration of this tradition in the face of contact with new stimuli. Tu’s Spiritual Humanism is both one such stimulus and an active Confucian embodiment of this spirit of creativity.