Heliconia Rostrata Research Articles

Atmospheric particulate matter deposition in herbaceous species on a university campus in Colombia

Atmospheric particulate matter (PM) is one of the most harmful atmospheric pollutants with implications for human health. Plants have been used as an alternative for the removal of atmospheric PM in urban environments. The removal of PM depends on different plant morphological traits, including trichomes and epicuticles evaluated on trees. However, leaf traits for herbaceous plants commonly used in urban gardens have not been fully explored. This study used filtering to quantify the PM deposition and to describe leaf morphological traits throughout optical devices on 20 leaves from six herbaceous species –Calathea rufibarba, Calathea zebrina, Heliconia psittacorum, Heliconia rostrata, Philodendron sp. and Dieffenbachia sp. Our results suggest that structures such as trichomes –C. rufibarba– and epicuticle –H. psittacorum– play a role in PM deposition. On the other hand, large leaf size did not influence the deposition of PM per leaf unit area. Therefore, for improving city air quality, our study suggests selecting species with epidermal traits independent of leaf area. This is the first study focusing on ornamental herbaceous species ability for PM deposition in urban environments in Medellín, Colombia.

Bioretention System as a Stormwater Best Management Practices (BMPs): A Case Study in Malaysia

Bioretention systems, such as rain gardens, are landscaped depressions that treat on-site stormwater discharge from impervious surfaces such as roofs, driveways, sidewalks, parking lots and compacted lawns. They are used to collect stormwater and filter it through a mixture of soil, sand and/or gravel. In this study, a pilot-scale bioretention system has been constructed in Universiti Sains Malaysia, Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang. This bioretention system will be used as a stormwater Best Management Practices (BMPs) to solve water quality issues in tropical climates, particularly Malaysia. This study consists of two bioretention pilot sites, a vegetated site with tropical plants, such as Red Hot Hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis), Amaryllis (Hippeastrum), Singapore Daisy (Sphagneticola trilobata), Lobster claw (Heliconia rostrata), Alternanthera (Alternanthera cultivar) and a non-vegetated control site. The study investigated the pollutant removal efficiency between two pilot sites in treating polluted runoff. The site uptake from the polluted runoff will be observed by testing the effluent with TSS, TN and TP test for three weeks at 30 mins, 2 hours, 4 hours and 8 hours after the runoff being released. The results showed pollutant removal efficiency for TSS (76 %), TN (78 %), and TP (71 %) for the vegetated site, which is slightly better compared to control site (TSS (75 %), TN (76 %) and TP (54 %)). This study concluded that the vegetated site has slightly better performance on nutrient removal efficiency.

Heliconia rostrata Extract Mediated Synthesis of GNPs and Their Anti-Diabetic and Wound Healing Properties for Applications in Diabetic Wound Care

Herein, we reported a novel application of the aqueous extract of Heliconia rostrata leaves to fabricate gold nanoparticles (GNPs) by the deoxygenation of Tetrachloroaurate (AuCl−4) ions. The phyto-chemicals existing in the leaf extract acted as a potential capping and reducing agents. The obtained GNPs were studied with the help of various characterization techniques like X-RD, TEM and UV-Vis spectroscopy. TEM analysis displayed that the fabricated GNPs were of different sizes and shapes ranges existed from 8–15 nm. High-resolution TEM and SAED images indicated high crystallinity and FCC phase of the NPs. The XRD analysis pattern displayed a (1 1 1) preferred orientation of GNPs. FTIR spectroscopy measurements displayed GNPs with a layer of phenolic compounds, suggesting a probable role of biomolecules accountable for capping and effective stabilization of GNPs. α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory assays were used to evaluate antidiabetic efficacy. The IC50 values for the α-amylase and α-glucosidase activities of Au NPs were 221 and 290 μg/ml, correspondingly. The IC50 value for the enzymatic assay validated the impact dose-dependently. Wound healing studies revealed that GNPs demonstrated a 99% wound closure after 5 days. As per PCR findings, the expression of CD-4 and NANOG was much higher in NPs treated wound tissues than in untreated ones. All these results revealed that prepared NPs exhibited good anti diabetic and wound healing activity in wound care.

Germinative capacity of native plant species with forage potential under tropical rainforest conditions at the mountain-foot

The humid tropics harbor great biological diversity, in addition to native species with forage potential as alternatives for animal feed. However, using trees and shrubs and having plantations are limited by the absence of information on their growth and seed germination. Therefore, the goal was to evaluate the germination capacity of native plant species with forage potential in tropical rainforest conditions, selecting eight species with important nutritional value: Bauhinia tarapotensis, Crescentia cujete, Zygia longifolia, Cecropia ficifolia, Piptocoma discolor, Piper bredemeyeri, Calathea lutea and Heliconia rostrata. Two treatments were evaluated: T1: Seeds (sexual and asexual) immersed for 12 hours in water, and T2: Seeds (sexual and asexual) without any pre-germination treatment (control). Significant differences were found in the germination percentage among species, treatments and the interaction of the two factors (p < 0.01). The species C. cujete, C. ficifolia and P. discolor presented better germination percentages with T1, in contrast to P. bredemeyeri, which adapted better to T2. In the same sense, H. rostrata (93%), C. cujete (91%) and Z. longifolia (89%) with T1, were the species with the highest germination capacity when compared to the other species, being desirable for use as fodder in agricultural production systems, due to their high germination power. In general, the pre-germinative treatment with water was very effective in increasing the permeability of the seed coat and, therefore, favored the breaking of endogenous physiological dormancy.

The Utilization of Medicinal Plants by Communities around Bukit Kelam Nature Park, Sintang Regency, West Kalimantan

Bukit Kelam Nature Park has a high diversity of flora, including medicinal plants. This study aimed to analyze the medicinal plants in Bukit Kelam Nature Park with high use value (UV), agreement of community's (informant consensus factor/ICF) in utilizing plant species for specific usage categories, and preferred medicinal plants for the treatment of particular usage (fidelity level/FL). Data was collected through field surveys and interview with respondents in Kebong, Merpak, and Kelam Sejahtera villages. Purposive sampling was used to determine the number of the respondent, and the number of respondents was 30% of the total number of the households (351 respondents). The results showed that 84,61% of respondents used 198 species of medicinal plants. Eleven species had high UV, and 5 of them were Curcuma longa (0,3761), Piper betle (0,2422), Psidium guajava (0,2308), Syzygium polyantum (0,1510), and Eleutherine bulbosa (0,1481). The high ICF for the usage category were for body odor, bad breath, diet, acne, nosebleeds, coughs, diarrhea, hypertension, and internal injuries. Fifty-eight species had high FL values (100%), and 5 of them were Erythrina subumbrans (fever), Heliconia rostrata (diabetes), Hippobroma longiflora (dysentery), Cassia alata (skin infection), and Baccaurea motleyana (sore eyes). Keywords: Bukit Kelam, conservation, local wisdom, traditional medicine

Influence of earthworm presence and hydraulic loading rate on the performance of vertical flow constructed wetlands

ABSTRACT In order to know the behaviour and performance of a vertical flow constructed wetland (VF-CW) operating with earthworm, this study evaluated the earthworm presence linked to hydraulic loading rates applied for domestic wastewater treatment. Two VF-CW units (710 cm², 0.75 m deep, with sand as filter media and planted with Heliconia rostrata) operated with a variable hydraulic and organic loadings rates (200 mm d−1/123 g COD m−2 d−1; 280 mm d−1/186 g COD m−2 d−1; 160 mm d−1/94 g COD m−2 d−1). Although the efficiency of COD load removal was similar (around 70%) for both CWs, the efficiency of total nitrogen load removal was around 95% throughout the evaluated period. The nitrification–denitrification process was identified with and without the presence of earthworm. VF-CW with earthworms showed higher hydraulic conductivity values (from 0.11 to 0.14 m h−1) compared with the VF-CW wetland without earthworms (0.07–0.09 m h−1). This study showed that the use of earthworms in CWs can be associated mainly with a preventive measure of clogging, which requires measures to maintain earthworms inside the bed media. Additionally, the earthworm presence has an ingestion mechanism of organic and inorganic solid particles in wastewater which excretes them as finer particles.

First report of Colletogloeum sp. as the causal agent of marginal leaf blight on Heliconia rostrata in India

Heliconia rostrata (false bird of paradise, Heliconiaceae) is native to South America but is an important herbaceous perennial ornamental plant in India and globally. In December 2016, a foliar blight was observed on six ten-month-old H.…

FENOLOGÍA DE HELICONIA (Heliconia sp ) EN CONDICIONES AGROECOLÓGICAS DE RAMAL DE ASPUZANA-SAN MARTIN-PERÚ

The phenological stages at Heliconias are presented differently in each area of life. This research was conducted in the city of Ramal de Aspuzana - San Martin, Peru ; assessed the developmental stages of the vegetative phase and the elapsed time for the start of the floral stage five species were quantified: Heliconia wagneriana, Heliconia stricta, Heliconia rostrata, Heliconia bihai and Heliconia ortotricha. H. wagneriana them behaved as with 232.66 days earlier with respect to the vegetative phase and the latter being Heliconia rostrata with 444 days. Also the time for the start of the floral phase in five species of Heliconia time was 424.17 days for Heliconia rostrata, Heliconia stricta to 245.83, 241.33 to Heliconia bihai, 234.33 Heliconia ortotricha and 215 days for to Heliconia wagneriana. Keywords: phenology, floral stage, vegetative stage, Heliconia, early la

VAZÃO E TRATAMENTO SECUNDÁRIO DE ESGOTO DOMÉSTICO EM ESTAÇÃO DE PEQUENO PORTE COM SISTEMA DE ZONA DE RAÍZES

VAZÃO E TRATAMENTO SECUNDÁRIO DE ESGOTO DOMÉSTICO EM ESTAÇÃO DE PEQUENO PORTE COM SISTEMA DE ZONA DE RAÍZES
 
 
 ANA CLÁUDIA OLIVEIRA SÉRVULO1; JEANE DA SILVA TAVARES2RODRIGO MOURA PEREIRA3E DELVIO SANDRI4
 
 1Doutoranda, Programa de Pós Graduação em Agronomia, Universidade de Brasília (UnB),Faculdade de Agronomia e Medicina Veterinária (FAV), Campus Universitário Darcy Ribeiro, ICC Centro,Asa Norte CEP 70.910-900 – Brasília, Brasil, e-mail: anaclaudiaoservulo@hotmail.com.
 2Aluna de graduação, Universidade de Brasília (UnB),Faculdade de Agronomia e Medicina Veterinária (FAV), Campus Universitário Darcy Ribeiro, ICC Centro,Asa Norte CEP 70.910-900 – Brasília, Brasil, e-mail:jeanesilva2512@hotmail.com.
 3Doutorando, Universidade de Brasília (UnB),Faculdade de Agronomia e Medicina Veterinária (FAV), Campus Universitário Darcy Ribeiro, ICC Centro,Asa Norte CEP 70.910-900 – Brasília, Brasil, e-mail: rodrigomoura@agricola.eng.br.
 4Prof. Associado 1, Universidade de Brasília (UnB),Faculdade de Agronomia e Medicina Veterinária (FAV), Campus Universitário Darcy Ribeiro, ICC Centro,Asa Norte CEP 70.910-900 – Brasília, Brasil, e-mail: sandri@unb.br.
 
 
 1 RESUMO
 
 O sistema de zona de raízes (SZR) é uma alternativa para tratamento de esgotos, cuja eficiência depende do material de suporte, composição do esgoto, espécie de macrófita e tempo de detenção hidráulica (TDH). Objetivou-se avaliar a medição de vazões de afluente e efluente de esgoto dos SZR com o uso de hidrômetro e método direto volumétrico(MDV) e a eficiência de diferentes espécies de macrófitas na remoção de atributos físicos e químicos do efluente. O esgoto bruto é gerado nos sanitários e restaurante universitário da Fazenda Água Limpa -UnB. Quatro leitos de tratamento foram utilizados: não cultivado, SZR com C. giganteus, Typha sppe H. rostrata. As avaliações ocorreram em quatro dias distintos. A evapotranspiração potencial (ETP) dos leitos foi obtida pela razão entre a diferença de volumes de afluente e efluente e a área superficial dos leitos. O hidrômetro não foi adequado na medida do volume de afluente, recomendando-se o MDV. A maior ETP ocorreu no SZR com Typha spp (9,98 mm dia-1)seguido do C. giganteus(9,37 mm dia-1).O maior valor de TDH foi de 9,49 dias e o menor de 4,68 dias. O oxigênio dissolvido, pH, turbidez e sólidos totais atendem aos limites para lançamento em corpos hídricos de classe 2.
 
 Palavras-chaves: macrófita, água residuária, leito cultivado.
 
 
 SÉRVULO, A.C.O.; TAVARES, J.S.; PEREIRA, R.M.; SANDRI, D. 
 FLOW RATES AND SECONDARY TREATMENT OF WASTEWATER IN SMALL-SCALE TREATMENT PLANT WITH ROOT ZONE SYSTEM
 
 
 2 ABSTRACT
 
 The root treatment wetland (RTW) is a low cost option to wastewater treatment, which efficiency depends on support material, wastewater composition, macrophyte specie and hydraulic detention time (HDT). This paper aimed to test the performance of the hydrometer and the volumetric method (VM)on measurement of effluentflow, and the removal efficiency of different macrophyte species over physical and chemical effluent attributes. The wastewater was from the bathrooms and restaurant in the experimental farm of the University of Brasília. Four constructed wetlands were used: free water system (FWS), RTW with Cyperus giganteus, with Typha spp and with Heliconia rostrata. The evaluation occurred in four days isolated. The systems’ potential evapotranspiration (PET) was determinate by the quocient of affluent-effluent volumes balance and the wetland surface area. The hydrometer didn’t measure affluent flow properly, recommending the VM. The highest PET was on RTW-Typha spp (9.98 mm day-1), followed by C. giganteus (9.37 mm day-1). The highest HDT was 9,49 days and the lowest was 4.68 days. The dissolved oxygen, pH, turbidity and total solids content are fit the Brazilian legal requirements for release into class 2 receiving bodies.
 
 Keywords: macrophytes, sewage, wetland.

Ibuprofen and caffeine removal in vertical flow and free-floating macrophyte constructed wetlands with Heliconia rostrata and Eichornia crassipes

Emerging pollutants appear more frequently in the environment and adverse effects affects not only human health but also the environment. This study evaluated the efficiency of two types of constructed wetlands (CWs) and a 12-unit mesocosm-scale system to remove ibuprofen and caffeine compounds: (i) vertical flow constructed wetland (VF-CW) planted with Heliconia rostrata using sand as filter media with and without earthworms; (ii) free-floating surface horizontal flow constructed wetland with Eichhornia crassipes macrophyte (FFM-CW); and (iii) mesocosm-scale 12 unit system using Eichhornia crassipes with clean water (opposed to wastewater), where the intention was to evaluate the removal of the added compounds without effects from wastewater or biofilm. The systems were efficient in removing the pollutants and demonstrated a limit for the applied COD and BOD rates, where the adequate application rate was 120 g COD.m−2.d−1 and 70 g BOD.m−2.d−1 to obtain maximum removal efficiency. TP varied independent of the applied load, while TN and NH4+ showed removals (99%) close to the applied rates (9 g TN.m−2.d−1 and 7 g NH4+.m−2.d−1 for the VF-CW and 8.5 g TN.m−2.d−1 and 5 g NH4+.m−2.d−1 for the FFM-CW). The emerging contaminants removal efficiency in the VF-CW was 97 and 89% for caffeine and ibuprofen, respectively. Inserting earthworms did not show a significant variation in relation to compound removal. The FFM-CW system removed 94 and 89% of the caffeine and ibuprofen, respectively. The VF-CW system with filter media presented better removal for caffeine and ibuprofen when compared to the FFM-CW. The performance between the macrophyte E. crassipes systems in the mesocosm units showed potential to remove emerging compounds even though clean water was used, with a 70% removal efficiency for caffeine and ibuprofen.

Smart alternative to cytotoxicity study and anti-angiogenic activity of different extracts of Heliconia rostrata

Ethnobotanically, Heliconia rostrata (Heliconiaceae) is used for the treatment of skin cancer by the traditional people of Panama. Present study aims to estimate the cytotoxicity activity of petroleum ether extracts of rhizomes (RPE) and inflorescence (FPE) of Heliconia rostrata. The cytotoxicity and anti-angiogenic activity of the extracts were evaluated using the Brine Shrimp Lethality Assay and chick embryo Chorioallantoic Membrane (CAM) Assay, respectively. Both the assays being cost effective, less time consuming and most importantly with no use of animals can be considered to be an alternative model for animal testing before going on for a full scale investigation on the animals in the development of an anti-cancer agent. In brine shrimp lethal study, cytotoxicity was evaluated in terms of LC50 (lethal concentration). Ten nauplii were added to different concentrations RPE and FPE. Percentage death of nauplii was taken out after 24h and LC50 was accessed1. RPE was potent against the brine shrimp in comparison to FPE (Influorescence Petroleum Ether Extract) with LC50 value of 85.04μg/ml. In the CAM assay, the CAM was subjected to different concentrations of extract along with DMSO (Dimethyl sulfoxide) as negative control. The anti-angiogenic effect of the extracts was found out using a semi-quantitative method of estimation done blindly by 10 different observers. The average score of the estimation showed RPE to be having strong anti-angiogenic effect than FPE. Thus, RPE can be used as a candidate for anti-cancer agent and can be further investigated thoroughly for anti-cancer treatment.

English

The objective of the present study was to assess the anti-fungal activity of medicinal plant extracts on inhibition of Colletotrichum gloesporioides mycelial growth, sporulation and germination and on anthracnose control in Heliconia psitacorum cv. Golden Torch and Heliconia rostrata. Extracts of garlic, lemon grass, cinnamon, lemon balm, eucalyptus, ginger, mint, bitter melon and black pepper were used. The, mycelial were assessed in vitro by measuring their growth in Petri dishes. Sporulation was assessed by counting spores in a Neubauer chamber. Germination was observed based on germination tube emission. In the in vitro tests, the inflorescences were treated with the plant extracts and inoculated with the pathogen 24 h later. The results showed that all the extracts presented anti-fungal activity, in greater or lesser intensity, compared to the control. The garlic extract resulted in the highest mycelial growth inhibition rate. Regarding sporulation, the bitter melon, ginger, mint, popcorn eucalyptus and bitter melon extracts were more efficacious, interfering in spore formation; while the ginger extract most reduced spore germination inhibiting germination tube emission. For the in vivo tests, it was observed that all the plant extracts tested were efficient in reducing lesion severity in the inflorescence, showing that the use of plant extracts may be a promising alternative for managing the diseases that affect helconia post-harvest. Key words: Alternative control, fungi, Colletotrichum gloesporioides, tropical flowers. &nbsp

Synthesis of metal nanoparticles using Heliconia rostrata leaf extract and their antiproliferative and apoptotic property

Synthesis of metal nanoparticles using Heliconia rostrata leaf extract and their antiproliferative and apoptotic property

Nectar Feeding Habits of Loten’s Sunbird Cinnyris lotenius and Purple-rumped Sunbird Leptocoma zeylonica in the Royal Botanical Gardens, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

Sunbirds (Nectariniidae) are small passerines that feed largely on nectar. The aim of thiswork was to observe the relationship of the purple-rumped sunbird Leptocoma zeylonica andLoten’s sunbird Cinnyris lotenius with their host flowers, and to examine their relationshipwith the glucose concentration of nectar, flower count and the length of corolla. The studywas carried out in the Royal Botanical Gardens, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, between February2013 and September 2013. For each observation, plant species visited for nectar feeding,method of obtaining food, glucose concentration of nectar, length of corolla, and flower countwere recorded. Both species of sunbirds visited Hamelia patens, Sanchezia speciosa,Heliconia rostrata, Megaskepasma erythrochlamys, Strobilanthes flaccidifolius,Graptophyllum pictum and Pachystachys spicata. The male Loten’s sunbird’s occurrence ona given flower is biased by the presence of female (Pearson correlation coefficient: 0.874; PValue:<0.001). The Purple-rumped female’s occurrence is biased by the presence of male(Pearson correlation coefficient: 0.819; P-Value: <0.001). The results also indicated that therewas no significant correlation between the occurrence of the bird and the glucoseconcentration of the flower (Pearson correlation coefficients: -0.045; P-Value: 0.740;[Loten’s male]; -0.094; P-Value: 0.489; [Loten’s female]; -0.061; P-Value: 0.653; [Purplerumpedmale]; 0.001; P-Value: 0.997; [Purple-rumped female]). Similarly, there was nosignificant correlation between the flower count with the occurrence of the bird (Pearsoncorrelation coefficients: 0.160; P-Value: 0.239; [Loten’s male], 0.171; P-Value: 0.208;[Loten’s female]; 0.172; P-Value: 0.595; [Purple rumped male]; 0.211; P-Value: 0.118;[Purple-rumped female]). The Loten’s sunbird has no significant correlation with flowercorolla length (Pearson correlation coefficients: -0.240; P-Value: 0.075; [Loten’s male]; -0.142; P-Value: 0.297; [Loten’s female]). The Purple-rumped sunbird has a significantcorrelation with the flower corolla length. (Pearson correlation coefficient: -0.399; P-Value:0.020; [Purple rumped male]; -0.452; P-Value: <0.001; [Purple-rumped female]). Dependingon the length of corolla, the nectar obtaining method varied as probing or piercing.

Effect of cultivated species and retention time on the performance of constructed wetlands

This study aimed to evaluate the influence of hydraulic retention time (HRT) and cultivated species in vertical-flow constructed wetlands (CW) on the removal of pollutants found in swine wastewater. The applied organic loading per unit area was 20 g m−2 d−1 of COD in nine cylindrical CW planted with Cyperus sp., Heliconia rostrata and Hedychium coronarium, and three controls containing only gravel. The HRT tested were 24, 48, 72 and 96 h. The following parameters of the CW influent and effluent were analysed: pH, ORP, turbidity, alkalinity, COD, TN, TKN, NHx, , TP, K and Na. Statistical analysis was performed at a 1% level of probability according to the Tukey test. It was noted that the greatest reductions were observed when CW were operated at higher HRT. TKN removals were 1.3 times greater than in unplanted CW. The best combination was CW planted with Cyperus sp. operating with a 72 h HRT, presenting the highest average mass removals with values of 69.1% (COD), 56.5% (TKN), 61.7% (NHx), 64.3% (TP) and 55.0% (K).

Application of ultrasound in the dissolution of potential antiophidian compounds from two ethanolics extracts of two species of Heliconias

This study evaluates the favorable effects of using ultrasound during the dissolution process of ethanolic extracts of Heliconia psittacorum and Heliconia rostrata (Heliconiaceae), a family of plants reported to have antiophidic activities. The extracts were subjected to an ultrasound treatment before incubation with venom, and carbohydrate and protein contents were calculated. The ultrasound-treated extracts delayed the clotting effect of venom by up to 45.59 s compared to the positive control (venom). The metabolites content increased to 296.6% and 61.6% in protein and carbohydrate content, respectively. Ultrasound increases the amount of primary and secondary metabolites (potentially antiophidics) released from the extract into the media, and thereby enhances the anticoagulant activity of these plants against the Bothrops asper (mapaná X) venom.

156 Effects of the Inductive Period, Shoot Density, and Leaf Removal on the Flowering of Heliconia rostrata Ruiz & Pavon

Heliconia rostrata is a herbaceous-musoid sympodial rhizomatous plant that grows as clump. After three leaves are produced, each shoot of the clump may bear an inflorescence if it is induced by short days (SD). However, the relationship between shoot density and flowering has not been quantified. To evaluate the effects of the inductive period, number of shoots, and leaf removal on flowering, rhizomes were planted in 120 pots (8 L). One-third of the pots were planted with two rhizomes, while the remainder was planted with one. One-half of the pots with one rhizome were allowed to develop all their shoots for three generations, while in the remaining pots only one shoot per generation was allowed to grow. In addition, one-half of the plants in all the treatments were subjected to selective leaf removal. The plants were grown under long days (LD) >13 h in a glasshouse until four leaves were produced. Inductive SD was supplied to all the plants from 5:00 pm to 8:00 am. After 8 weeks of SD, one-half of the plants were given LD, while the other half continued under SD (conSD) until flowering. The highest percentage of flowering shoots (39% to 35%) was observed in plants under conSD; plants under SD-LD were 10% to 9%. The second generation of shoots showed the highest flowering (74% conSD and 21% SD-LD), followed by the first (62% conSD and 18% SD-LD), and third (31% conSD and 0% SD-LD) generations. Non-flowering shoots of the first generation were aborted or dead. Shoots of the third were still vegetative, since they had few leaves to be induced. Fewer flowers occurred in clumps allowed to develop all their shoots. Intact plants from rhizomes with one shoot per generation flowered more than the partially defoliated ones under conSD.