Ray Height Research Articles

Wood anatomy and acoustic properties of selected tropical hardwoods

Selected anatomical features and ground tissue composition were studied in four tropical hardwoods (Afzelia sp. [Doussié], Intsia sp. [Merbau], Astronium sp. [Muiracatiara] and Millettia sp. [Wengé]). These woods can be applied in musical instrument production, especially for xylophone bars. The measured density, 1st bending natural frequency and the logarithmic decrement of damping were used to calculate other acoustic properties such as dynamic young modulus of elasticity (Erf), specific modulus of elasticity (E´/ρ), internal friction (tan δ), and acoustic conversion efficiency (ACE). The correlations between anatomy and acoustic properties were determined. Despite difficulties in specifying general characteristics of hardwoods due to their complicated and variable structure, correlations valid between species were found for specific modulus of elasticity. Specific modulus of elasticity was negatively correlated with ray tissue volume and positively with ray height to width ratio and fiber length. The diversity in ground tissue composition was the main criterion for the species choice and probably should condition diverse correlations of anatomical features found for individual species. It seems that better acoustic properties (higher stiffness, ACE or specific modulus of elasticity) are performed by wood with longer fibers and slender rays, causing minimal deflection of adjoining fibers.

New record of fossil wood Xenoxylon from the Late Triassic in the Sichuan Basin, southern China and its paleoclimatic implications

Fossil wood is one of the significant proxies for terrestrial paleoclimate and paleogeographical reconstruction in Earth history. Abundant and diversified Mesozoic fossil woods are well recorded in China; however, Triassic fossil wood is very scarce. Here, we report a new fossil wood from the Late Triassic Xujiahe Formation (Norian to Rhaetian) in Guangyuan of northern Sichuan Basin, southwestern China. The fossil wood material consists of two well-preserved specimens yielding secondary xylem with distinct growth rings. Bordered pits on the radial tracheid walls are mostly contiguous, biseriate alternate, locally uniseriate and strongly flattened. Cross-fields show a large window-like pore. This anatomy is typical for the important fossil wood morphogenus Xenoxylon Gothan, and, based on a novel combination of radial and cross-field pitting type and ray height, a new species, Xenoxylon guangyuanense sp. nov. is recognized. The finding of this new fossil wood taxon contributes to a better understanding of the yet poorly documented Xenoxylon early radiation during the Late Triassic, as well as of the origin of X. meisteri group, a peculiar endemic group which diversified in Far-East Asia from the Triassic to the Early Cretaceous. Xenoxylon is a paleobiogeographically significant genus, being bound to cooler and/or wetter climates of Northern Hemisphere throughout its Late Triassic–Late Cretaceous range. The occurrence of Xenoxylon in the Sichuan Basin of southern China may indicate a short-term cooling event, sandwiched within a period during which warm and wet climate conditions largely prevailed over lower latitude regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Such a cooling event in the Sichuan Basin which was located at a low paleolatitude on the eastern rim of Tethys may be in accordance in time with the temperature decline event in Norian–Rhaetian boundary uncovered by oxygen isotope (δ18O) record in Italy of the western rim of Tethys.

Within-Tree and Tree-Age Variation of Selected Anatomical Properties of the Wood of Ugandan-Grown Eucalyptus grandis

Abstract The challenges of utilizing Eucalyptus grandis thinnings prompted a study into its anatomical properties with the aim of identifying its potential based on the within-tree axial and tree-age variation. Fiber length, fiber diameter, vessel length, vessel diameter, vessel average, ray height, and ray frequency at 3, 6, 9, and 12 years were studied. Axial sample portions at 25, 50, and 75 percent of tree height were collected from western Uganda and prepared for maceration, microtomy, and microscopy. Analysis of variance and Tukey's test were used to obtain axial and tree-age variation. Fiber length (819 to 1,077 μm) decreased axially in higher tree ages of 6, 9, and 12 years and increased with tree age. Fiber diameter (10 to 13.4 μm) varied inconsistently axially and decreased with tree age. Vessel length had no consistent axial pattern but decreased with tree age (338 to 548 μm). Vessel diameter showed higher values at 75 percent and increased with tree age (93 to 138 μm). Vessel average did not vary axially but decreased with tree age (8 to 11 vessels per mm2). Ray height did not vary axially but increased with tree age (107 to 278 μm). Ray frequency decreased with tree age (8 to 10 rays per mm2). E. grandis trees at the ages of 3, 6, 9, and 12 years have anatomical properties suitable for production of strong pulps although with a modest proportion of fines. Comparative research on cloned E. grandis varieties and their implied industrial potential would be appropriate to improve utilization of this fast-growing tree species.

WOOD AXIAL CHARACTERIZATION OF 32-YEAR-OLD Croton piptocalyx Müll. Arg. EUPHORBIACEAE

This paper aims to characterize the wood anatomy of Croton piptocalyx. To carry out an investigation of axial variation, discussing it in a functional context, helping to increase knowledge about the species. Five randomly selected 32-year-old trees were felled at the Luiz Antonio Experimental Station, located in Luiz Antonio City, São Paulo state, Brazil. From stems, discs were cut from six different stem heights (stem base, 1 m, 2 m, 3 m, 4 m, and 5 m). For each disc, samples close to the bark were removed for wood anatomy studies and specific gravity calculation. Wood anatomy of C. piptocalyx generally agrees with that of other species of the genus as described in the literature. However, variation in both quantitative and qualitative data could be related to tree age and species differences. Axial variations found in vessel element length, vessel diameter and ray height can be respectively related to the hypothesized Typical Radial Pattern based on the occurrence of shorter and narrower cells in younger parts of the wood, involving vessel element length and diameter, and mechanical requirement in the case of higher rays at the trunk base.

Anatomical properties of Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq. at five different ages

Anthocephalus cadamba is an important tree species for pulp and paper industry. Anatomical studies were conducted between trees of different age viz., 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 were selected from different plantation. One plus tree from each age was felled for the study. The transverse discs of 10 cm thickness were collected from three different heights of tree representing base, middle and top positions. Anatomical properties like Fibre Length, Fibre Diameter, Fibre Lumen Width, Fibre Wall Thickness, Flexibility, Slenderness ratio, Runkel ratio, Vessel Length, Vessel Diameter, Vessel Area, Vessel Frequency, Ray Height, Ray Width and Ray Frequency were studied. Present study revealed that the average Runkel ratio of Anthocephalus cadamba was 0.48; hence it is suitable for pulp and paper production. Fibre length at the ages of 6, 8 and 10 were at par. Fibre wall thickness were not significantly different at 2, 4, 6 and 8 age but 10 years of age fibre wall thickness differed significantly from other five different ages. Fibre diameter, fibre lumen width and slenderness were at par for all the five ages. Flexibility was at par in the ages of 2, 4, 6, and 8. Best practice of harvesting Anthocephalus cadamba would be at the age of six. Ray and vessel morphology did not show any specific trend from two to ten years old tree.

Graphical Selection of Optical Materials Using an Expanded Athermal Glass Map and Considering the Housing Material for an Athermal and Achromatic Design

This paper presents a new graphical method for selecting a pair of optical glass and housing materials to simultaneously achromatize and athermalize a multilens system composed of many elements. To take into account the lens spacing and housing, we quantify the lens power, chromatic power, and thermal power by weighting the ratio of the paraxial ray height at each lens to them. In addition, we introduce the equivalent single lens and the expanded athermal glass map including a housing material. Even though a lens system is composed of many elements, we can simply identify a pair of glass and housing materials that satisfies the athermal and achromatic conditions. Applying this method to design a black box camera lens equipped with a 1/4-inch image sensor having a pixel width of $2{\mu}m$ , the chromatic and thermal defocusings are reduced to less than the depth of focus, over the specified ranges in temperature and frequency.

Anatomía comparada del leño de tres especies nativas de Schinopsis (Anacardiaceae).

Schinopsis, género endémico de Sudamérica, incluye ocho especies que habitan en los bosques xerófilos chaqueños de Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay y Brasil. Son cuatro las especies nativas de Argentina, dos de gran importancia económica. El objetivo del trabajo es comparar anatómicamente el xilema de: S. lorentzii (Griseb.) Engl., S. balansae Engl. y Schinopsis marginata Engl. Se trabajó con 5 árboles por especie. Se usó la terminología del Comité de Nomenclatura de IAWA y Tortorelli en las descripciones. Se utilizaron los índices de vulnerabilidad y mesomorfía propuestos por Carlquist para determinar el tipo de comportamiento. Se analizó comparativamente los rasgos anatómicos relevantes. Se analizaron estadísticamente cinco variables cuantitativas: frecuencia de poros/mm2 (Fv); diámetro tangencial (Vd) y longitud de los elementos vasculares (VI); altura del radio (Rh). El leño homogéneo, presenta diferencias en las variables cuantitativas como frecuencia, diámetro y longitud de vaso. El rasgo anatómico predominante es la presencia de canales secretores de tanino radiales y vasos del duramen ocluidos por tilosis. Los leños de S. lorentzii y S. marginata mostraron gran afinidad y rasgos mesofiticos con tendencia a xerofíticos; mientras que S. balansae presenta signos mesofíticos.

Conditions for having identical aberration behaviors of various thick lenses

Two optical lenses with the same focal length but different lens thicknesses and principal plane locations can provide equivalent first-order optics on imagery if the marginal and chief ray heights and slope angles at their principal planes are equal, resulting in the same system magnification, object and image distances. In this paper, we will prove that if these lenses have the same primary aberrations (including Seidel aberrations, chromatic aberrations, and secondary spectrum) corresponding to the same marginal and chief rays then they must have the same new aberrations for any same new rays. This theorem is useful when designers would like to redesign a lens group in a system. The influence on the movements among lens groups, the special aberration properties of plane parallel plates, and afocal lens groups are also discussed.

Effect of growth rate on wood quality of teak (Tectona grandis L. f.): a comparative study of teak grown under differing site quality conditions

The present study was carried out to analyse the effect of rate of growth on the wood quality of teak from samples collected from trees which were grown within India as well as from outside. Teak samples (basal discs) from 14 different locations viz. Nilambur, Malayattoor, Konni, Ranni, Vadavar (TN) and Betul (MP) within India and Myanmar, Thailand, Ghana, Benin, Cameroon, Sudan, Tanzania and Trinidad outside India were included in the study. To study the effect of growth rate on wood quality, the collected samples were classified as fast grown and slow grown based on their average ring width. Those samples having an average ring width ≥5 mm and those having an average ring width <5 mm were categorised into fast grown and slow grown respectively. The analysis on variation in wood physical, anatomical and biochemical properties between the two categories revealed that, fast grown samples were characterized with higher specific gravity, moisture content (air dry) and shrinkage compared to the slow grown, but properties like vessel diameter, vessel area, ray height, ray width and extractive content (%) was found to be significantly higher for slow grown samples. However, fast and slow grown teak showed similarity with respect to other properties such as heartwood content (%), heartwood colour and bark thickness.

Changes in monkey crystalline lens spherical aberration during simulated accommodation in a lens stretcher.

The purpose of this study was to quantify accommodation-induced changes in the spherical aberration of cynomolgus monkey lenses. Twenty-four lenses from 20 cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis; 4.4-16.0 years of age; postmortem time 13.5 ± 13.0 hours) were mounted in a lens stretcher. Lens spherical aberration was measured in the unstretched (accommodated) and stretched (relaxed) states with a laser ray tracing system that delivered 51 equally spaced parallel rays along 1 meridian of the lens over the central 6-mm optical zone. A camera mounted below the lens was used to measure the ray height at multiple positions along the optical axis. For each entrance ray, the change in ray height with axial position was fitted with a third-order polynomial. The effective paraxial focal length and Zernike spherical aberration coefficients corresponding to a 6-mm pupil diameter were extracted from the fitted values. The unstretched lens power decreased with age from 59.3 ± 4.0 diopters (D) for young lenses to 45.7 ± 3.1 D for older lenses. The unstretched lens shifted toward less negative spherical aberration with age, from -6.3 ± 0.7 μm for young lenses to -5.0 ± 0.5 μm for older lenses. The power and spherical aberration of lenses in the stretched state were independent of age, with values of 33.5 ± 3.4 D and -2.6 ± 0.5 μm, respectively. Spherical aberration is negative in cynomolgus monkey lenses and becomes more negative with accommodation. These results are in good agreement with the predicted values using computational ray tracing in a lens model with a reconstructed gradient refractive index. The spherical aberration of the unstretched lens becomes less negative with age.

Use of wood characters in the Identification of Terminalia spp in Sri Lanka

250 timber species are being used by the timber industry in Sri Lanka and among them major timber consumers are housing developer, furniture manufacturer and wood fabricators. Once the tree is felled, the identification of the tree become very difficult and need of relying on their macroscopic/ microscopic features and physical properties of timber become necessary. Timber identification is necessary for right use of timber and to check on fraud in timber trading as some timber traders mix or sell low price different type of timber species deceiving customers implying them to be valuble timbers in order to increase their profit margin. 0 Five timber species of Terminalia namely Terminalia arjuna (Kumbuk), Terminalia bellirica (Bulu), Terminalia catappa (Kottamba), Terminalia chebula (Aralu) and Terminalia parviflora (Hampalanda) of the family of Combretaceae were studied anatomically in search of sufficient features by which one Terminalia sp can be separated from the other . The examination of the transverse section of wood with a hand lens (x25) does not provide adequate reliable information to differentiate one species from the other for identification due to resemblance of wood structure of five Terminalia spp. Hence for the anatomical examination, transverse section (T.S.), radial longitudinal section (R.L.T.) and tangential longitudinal section (T.L.S.) were obtained using the microtome. In this study, some important wood anatomical and non anatomical features were studied according to IAWA ( 1989). It was found that all the Terminalia spp had diffuse porous wood having vessels mainly solitary and occasionally in 2 -3 vessels of radial multiples. Mean vessel diameter and vessel diameter range were recorded respectively as 241 µm and 172-331 µm in Terminallia arjuna, 169 µm and 107-204 µm in Terminalia bellirica , 240 µm and 169-309 µm in Terminallia catappa, 115 µm and 68-175 µm inTerminalia chebula and 124 µm and 75-159 µm in Terminalia parviflora. Mean vessel frequency were observed as 3 per mm2 in Terminallia arjuna, 4 per mm2 in Terminalia bellirica , 3 per mm2 in Terminallia catappa, 6 per mm2 in Terminalia chebula and 5 per mm2 in Terminalia parviflora. Mean rays frequency, mean ray height and mean ray width were found respectively as 9 per mm, 206 µm, 24 µm in Terminallia arjuna, 11 per mm, 283 µm, 24 µm in Terminalia bellirica , 8 per mm, 280 µm, 25 µm in Terminallia catappa, 13 per mm, 239 µm, 31 µm in Terminalia chebula and 10 per mm, 235 µm, 30 µm in Terminalia parviflora. Ray cell arrangement is mostly uniseriate and occasionally byseriate in Terminalia bellirica, Terminalia parviflora, Terminallia arjuna. Ray cell arrangement is mostly multiseriate and occasionally uniseriate in Terminallia catappa. Terminalia chebula has uniseriate ray cell arrangment . Different type of axial parenchyma types were found in each terminalia species from which the prominent type of axial parenchyma was identified from each species as follows; Terminalia bellirica had axial parenchyma band (more than three cells wide). Terminalia parviflora and Terminalia catappa had aliform/ vasicentric type axial parenchyma which can be differentiated from confluent parenchyma type in Terminalia chebula . Vasicentric (halo) parenchyma type were found mainly in Terminallia arjuna. Finally, It can be concluded that ray cell arrangement and axial parenchyma types can be used together as baseline to distinguish Terminalia spp in Sri Lanka for the purpose of timber identification.

Caracterização da madeira de quatro espécies florestais

O conhecimento das relações existentes entre a estrutura anatômica da madeira com suas propriedades físicas ou mecânicas é importante para seu uso adequado. Este trabalho teve como objetivo caracterizar a anatomia microscópica e propriedades físicas da madeira de quatro diferentes espécies florestais. A madeira estudada foi proveniente das seguintes espécies: Cedrela fissilis (Cedro), Híbrido clonal Eucalyptus urophylla × Eucalyptus grandis (Eucalipto urograndis), Hovenia dulcis (Uva do Japão) e Gallesia integrifolia (Pau d'alho). Para a determinação da retratibilidade, utilizou-se a norma MB26/40 da ABNT (1940); as dimensões lineares foram obtidas com palmer, precisão de 0,001mm. O estudo da anatomia da madeira seguiu as recomendações da norma de procedimento em estudos de anatomia de madeira, da COPANT (1974) e também da IAWA (1989). Os caracteres anatômicos avaliados foram: diâmetro tangencial (µm) e frequência de vasos (nomm-2); comprimento de fibra (µm), diâmetro de lume (µm) e espessura de parede de fibra (µm); altura (µm), largura (µm) e frequência de raios (nomm-1). Os valores do coeficiente anisotrópico foram de 1,16; 1,77; 1,81 e 1,84 para a madeira de C. fissilis, H. dulcis, Híbrido clonal e G. integrifolia, respectivamente, demonstrando que a madeira de C. fissilis possui elevada estabilidade dimensional e as demais madeiras, valores aceitáveis para esse coeficiente.

Comparative wood anatomy of root and stem of Citharexylum myrianthum (Verbenaceae)

Root and stem wood anatomy of C. myrianthum (Verbenaceae) from a semideciduous seasonal forest in Botucatu municipality (22º52’20”S and 48º26’37”W), São Paulo state, Brazil, were studied. Growth increments demarcated by semi-ring porosity and marginal bands of axial parenchyma were observed in the wood of both root and stem. Many qualitative features were the same in both root and stem: fine helical thickenings, and simple and multiple perforation plates in vessel elements; large quantities of axial parenchyma in the growth rings, grading from marginal bands and confluent forming irregular bands in earlywood to lozenge aliform in latewood; axial parenchyma cells forked, and varied wall projections and undulations; septate fibres; forked and diverse fibre endings. Quantitative features differing between root and stem wood were evaluated using student’s t-test, and vessel frequency, vessel element length, vessel diameter, ray height, and vulnerability and mesomorphy indices differed significantly. Root wood had lower frequency of vessels, narrower and longer vessel elements, and taller rays than wood of the stem. The calculated vulnerability and mesomorphy indices indicated that C. myrianthum plants are mesomorphic. Roots seem to be more susceptible to water stress than the stem.

The anatomy and grain pattern in forks of hazel (Corylus avellana L.) and other tree species

This paper provides a new anatomical model for how branches are joined together at forks in trees, using evidence from MicroXCT scanning, ESEM output and visual observation. Wood grain arrangements at the forks and other junctions within a tree must be arranged to mechanically join together the two or more branches, yet not adversely restrict sap flow. The grain orientation at junctions therefore represents a trade-off in xylem performance between the functions of efficient sap conductance and the provision of adequate load-bearing capacity. Initial observations of wood grain orientation were made on the surfaces of several dozen debarked and fractured bifurcations of a wide range of tree species, both by eye and using a scanning electron microscope. Subsequently, small volumes of wood were sampled from two locations within the junctions of hazel, at the junction apex and on the outer section of join. Wood was imaged in 3D using high-resolution X-ray tomography, and the scanned volumes were analysed for their wood grain patterns. It was found that the wood at the junctions of hazel forks contained only 37 % of the number of vessels contained in wood within the adjacent stem. The vessel elements formed at the junctions were only 32.5 % the length of those in the stem, had a mean diameter only 50.5 % of the stem vessels and consequently only 26.3 % of their lumen volume. The passage of the vessels through the fork wood deviated from a straight line (Euclidean) distance by more than 14 times more than the stem wood vessels did. The interweaving of vessels in the fork wood was over 22 times greater than in the stem wood. A survey of rays showed them to be 58 % more abundant in fork wood but only 62 % of the height of rays in the stem wood. These results suggest that where two branches of similar diameter join to form a tree fork, an interlocking wood grain pattern is formed at the apex of the bifurcation, which provides higher tensile strength to the junction. Breaking of the hazel fork requires wood fibres to be stretched axially and broken across, which requires greater stress than breaking normal wood radially or tangentially.

Construction of a Dicotomous Key for Common Local and Imported Timber Species in Sri Lanka

Proper timber identification mechanism is essential today than ever before as lesser knownlocal and imported timber species are coming to timber market in present. In Sri Lanka thereare over 400 different timber species of commercial use, which show a remarkably widerange of variation in their physical properties as well as their anatomical structures. Hencetimber identification is a highly important task to confirm its authenticity. Scientific woodidentification is based on microscopic evaluation of anatomical properties.The objective is of this research is to develop a timber identification key for common localand imported timber species used in Sri Lanka to facilitate scientific identification of timberspecies based on anatomical features in IAWA (International Association of WoodAnatomist) list of 1989.Timber samples of local and imported timber species were collected from various floristicregions in Sri Lanka. Authentic timber samples were collected from Research Division of theState Timber Corporation. Transverse section (T.S), Radial Longitudinal Section (R.L.S.) andTangential Longitudinal Section (T.L.S.) were obtained using the Microtome. Microscopicslides were prepared for sixty seven timber species and photographic representations andanatomical details were presented. Anatomical features of rays, parenchyma and vessels werestudied. Tangential vessel diameter and ray height were also measured. Values of the meanvessel diameter were categorized according to IAWA: category 1(&lt;=50 μm), Category 2,(50-100 μm), Category 3 (100-200 μm) and Category 4 (&gt;=200 μm).The highest mean vessel diameter value was observed in Garcinia spp (Kandis) and secondhighest value was observed in Azadirachta indica (Margosa) timber species. The lowestMean Vessel Diameter value was observed in Elaeodendron glaucum (Neralu) timberspecies.Specific gravity values were taken from previous research and publications. Specific gravityare categorized three categories according to IAWA features: low (&lt;=0.40), medium (0.40 -0.75) and high (&gt;= 0.75). The highest basic specific gravity value was observed in Diospyrosebenum (Ebony) (1.12) and second highest value was observed in Palu (1.1) timber species.The lowest basic specific gravity values were observed in Lunumidella and Rukattana timberspecies.Mean ray height of 67 timber species were measured using Micrometrics SE premium 4software available at research division in the State Timber Corporation.A dichotomous key on timber identification was prepared using 56 common local timberspecies and 11 major imported timber species mostly used in Sri Lanka to facilitate scientificidentification of timber species based on anatomical features of IAWA (InternationalAssociation of Wood Anatomist) List 1989.

Use of Wood Characters in the Identification of Terminalia spp in Sri Lanka

More than 250 timber species are being used by the timber industry in Sri Lanka, among themajor timber consumers are housing developer, furniture manufacturer and wood fabricators.Once the tree is felled, the identification of the tree become very difficult and need to rely ontheir macroscopic/ microscopic features and physical properties of timber. Timberidentification is necessary for right use of timber and to check on fraud in timber trading assome timber traders mix or sell low price, different type of timber species, deceivingcustomers to increase their profit margin.Five timber species of Terminalia namely Terminalia arjuna (Kumbuk), Terminalia bellirica(Bulu), Terminalia catappa (Kottamba), Terminalia chebula (Aralu) and Terminaliaparviflora (Hampalanda) of the family of Combretaceae were studied anatomically in searchof sufficient features by which one Terminalia sp can be separated from the other . Theexamination of the transverse section of wood with a hand lens (x25) does not provideadequate reliable information to differentiate one species from the other for identification dueto resemblance of wood structure of five Terminalia spp. Hence for the anatomicalexamination, transverse section (T.S.), radial longitudinal section (R.L.T.) and tangentiallongitudinal section (T.L.S.) were obtained using the microtome.In this study, some important wood anatomical and non anatomical features were studiedaccording to IAWA (1989). It was found that all the Terminalia spp had diffuse porous woodhaving vessels mainly solitary and occasionally in 2 -3 vessels of radial multiples. Meanvessel diameter and vessel diameter range were recorded respectively as 241 μm and 172-331 μm in Terminallia arjuna, 169 μm and 107-204 μm in Terminalia bellirica , 240 μmand 169-309 μm in Terminallia catappa, 115 μm and 68-175 μm inTerminalia chebula and124 μm and 75-159 μm in Terminalia parviflora. Mean vessel frequency were observed as 3per mm2 in Terminallia arjuna, 4 per mm2 in Terminalia bellirica , 3 per mm2 inTerminallia catappa, 6 per mm2 in Terminalia chebula and 5 per mm2 in Terminaliaparviflora. Mean rays frequency, mean ray height and mean ray width were foundrespectively as 9 per mm, 206 μm, 24 μm in Terminallia arjuna, 11 per mm, μm 283, 24μm in Terminalia bellirica, 8 per mm, 280 μm, 25 μm in Terminallia catappa, 13 per mm,239 μm, 31 μm in Terminalia chebula and 10 per mm, 235 μm, 30 μm in Terminaliaparviflora. Ray cell arrangement is mostly uniseriate and occasionally byseriate inTerminalia bellirica, Terminalia parviflora, Terminallia arjuna. Ray cell arrangement ismostly multiseriate and occasionally uniseriate in Terminallia catappa. Terminalia chebulahas uniseriate ray cell arrangment.Different type of axial parenchyma types were found in each terminalia species from whichthe prominent type of axial parenchyma was identified from each species as follows;Terminalia bellirica had axial parenchyma band (more than three cells wide). Terminalia parviflora and Terminalia catappa had aliform/ vasicentric type axial parenchyma which canbe differentiated from confluent parenchyma type in Terminalia chebula. Vasicentric (halo)parenchyma typewere found mainly in Terminallia arjuna. Finaly, it can be concluded thatray cell arrangement and axial parenchyma types can be used together as baseline todistinguish Terminalia spp in Sri Lanka for the purpose of timber identification.

RADIAL VARIATION OF WOOD ANATOMY AND BASIC DENSITY OF Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell.) Brenan

We investigated wood samples of five Anadenanthera colubrina trees, aiming to study radial variation of anatomy and basic density. The trees were cut from “lote 5 do Rodoanel trecho sul” in Embu municipality, State of São Paulo, where vegetation is classified as Montane Ombrophilous Dense Forest and climate is classified as Cwa. We cut discs from the diameter at breast height ‒ DBH, and then cut samples from pith-to-bark to anatomical and basic density analysis. The results suggest that Anadenanthera colubrina has a very common anatomical and basic density radial variation pattern from pith-to-bark between hardwoods with an increase in vessel diameter favoring hydraulic conductivity, fiber wall thickness and length, ray height and width, and basic density. While the negative relationship between vessel diameter and frequency is well reported for many species, it has not been observed in A. colubrina because vessel frequency oscillates radially. This typical radial pattern also occurs in other native species in planting conditions, already demonstrated by our group in other studies, obviously with some changes depending on species.

Comparative wood anatomy of Juniperus from Macaronesia

The wood anatomy of the three species of Juniperus occurring in Macaronesia is compared for the first time using representative samples of each species collected in its natural region of provenance: J. cedrus Webb &amp; Berthel and J. phoenicea L. var. canariensis Guyot, in the Canary Islands, and J. brevifolia (Seub.) Antoine, in the Azores. The three species are anatomically similar, although some qualitative differences were observed: distribution of axial parenchyma very scarce in J. phoenicea compared with the other two species, presence of crassulae only in J. phoenicea, presence of torus extensions and notches on pit borders in the radial walls of J. brevifolia, and ray parenchyma end walls slightly nodular in J. cedrus as opposed to very nodular in J. phoenicea and J. brevifolia. In addition, the biometry of tracheid pit diameter in the radial walls, ray height in number of cells, and largest and smallest diameters of cross-field pits shows differences for a significance level of 95%.

ACQ 약제의 목재 내 침투 및 부후 특성에 미치는 목재 조직의 영향

구리계 보존제 처리에 대한 기초 자료를 얻기 위하여 Douglas fir 변재와 ACQ-2 보존제를 사용하여 목재 내 침투 및 부후 특성을 조사하였다. 약제의 주입이 어려운 Douglas fir 수종에 대하여 약제의 주입이 잘된 곳과 안된 곳의 시료를 채취하여 약제 이동을 방해하는 인자를 구명하고자 방사조직 높이, 방사조직 밀도, 가도관의 길이를 실체현미경, 광학현미경, 그리고 전자현미경으로 측정 및 관찰하였다. 그 결과 방사조직의 높이와 밀도 그리고 가도관길이는 약제의 주입이 용이했던 부분과 주입이 안된 부분에서 차이를 보이지 않았지만, 목재 구성 세포들의 벽공에서는 차이가 나타났음을 전자현미경을 통해 관찰할 수 있었다. 약제의 주입이 안된 곳에서는 폐색된 벽공이 많이 관찰되었다. 그리고 여러 농도의 ACQ로 처리한 목재 시편을 갈색부후균으로 부후시킨 후 광학 현미경으로 부후 특성을 관찰하였다. 그 결과 무처리 시편의 가도관, 방사조직, 수지구 등의 조직이 부후되어 파괴된 것을 볼 수 있었으며, 약제 처리 농도가 낮으면 부후가 진행되므로 일정 농도 이상으로 처리해야함을 알 수 있었다. To obtain the basic information on wood preservative process using copper, the penetration ACQ-2 preservative agent into Douglas fir wood and its degradational characteristics were investigated. Douglas fir is known to be difficult for preservative agent injection. To find the hindrance factor of the preservatives movement, the ray height, ray density, and length of tracheid were measured and observed by a stereoscopic microscope and scanning electron microscope. The results were compared in the well-penetrated parts of preservatives and insufficient parts. There were no significant differences in height, length, and density between both parts, except for the pits of the wood elements observed in SEM micrograph. More declosed pits were found in the well-penetrated parts of preservatives. Decay characteristics of wood specimen treated with various ACQ concentrations by brown-rot fungi was observed by an optical microscope. The decayed properties of tracheid, rays, and resin canals was found in the non-treated wood specimens and it was also found that some extent of preservatives concentration is necessary to protect the decay.

Comparison of Design and Spatial Stability of Two Kinds of Optical Systems for Stereoscopic Mapping Camera

To achieve a certain precision when mapping in accord with a particular proportion or scale with stereo mapping camera, the change of chief ray height of the edge field due to the fluctuation of working temperature is required to be within the range of microns, and at the meantime the size and structure layout of three-linear array stereo mapping camera are determined directly by the configuration of optical system. Based on the requirements of refractive optical system with long focal length, academic calculation and actual optical designs based on two typical configurations for stereoscopic mapping camera are made,the actual working temperature and performance requirements are also taken into consideration, the results including the modulation transfer function, distortion and stability comparison are also given.