Nest Height Research Articles

Nest site selection during the second breeding attempt in Japanese tits (Parus minor): effects of nest site characteristics.

Numerous investigations focusing on nest site selection among multiple-brooded bird species have revealed a common trend: breeders frequently return to their first nest sites for another brood during the same breeding season. This behavior suggests a strong preference for familiar locations, which may offer advantages such as increased safety, resource availability, and the efficiency of parental care. However, there were also instances where breeders moved to a new nest site. Habitat changes linked to nest-switching in birds that breed multiple times in a season have not been thoroughly explored. This research aimed to determine whether Japanese tits (Parus minor), who are facultatively double-brooded, alter the features of their nest sites due to changes in the surrounding environment during their second breeding attempt. We compared nest site features of the Japanese tit's nest boxes used for the first brood, those used for the second brood, and control nest boxes (which were unoccupied and located in the same forest patch as the nest boxes for the second brood during the corresponding year). The findings indicated that, when compared to control nest boxes, the nest boxes occupied by Japanese tits for the second brood exhibited shorter shrub height, smaller average DBH of the surrounding trees, yet higher nest height and increased density of shrubs. In comparison to nest boxes used for the first brood, those used for the second brood exhibited lower shrub height, increased shrub density and higher nest height. Our study suggested that nest site selection for the second brood by tits might be influenced by unique site characteristics, which could be linked to factors such as food accessibility or predator avoidance.

Nesting density and nest site selection of the Magpie Pica pica in Kaliningrad, south-east of the Baltic Sea area

Over the past decades, the Magpie, which has ecological and behavioral flexibility, has colonized many cities. In this study, we examine the effect of urban disturbance on nesting density of the Magpie and nest height in a city in the south-eastern Baltic region. The studies were carried out in Kaliningrad (54°43’N, 20°30’E) during the leafless period in 2018–2021 in green residential areas with a predominance of 5-storey buildings (“residential area”) and low-rise individual housing areas (“individual houses”). In the residential area, nest counts were carried out separately in the central part of the city and outside the city center. Based on literature data on urban populations of the Magpie in other cities, we predict that: (1) in the central part of the city there will be a higher nesting density of magpies and (2) in the central part of the city, nests will be located higher than outside the central part of the city. The results obtained did not confirm these assumptions. The average nesting density in residential areas in the city center and outside the city center was virtually the same. And, in addition, in the residential area in the city center, nests were on average located lower than in the residential area outside the central part of the city, but the differences were not statistically significant and the median values of these city zones coincide. The work also provides data on the placement of nests on various types of trees and shrubs. The Hooded crow, being the main predator and competitor of the Magpie, shares the same habitats in Kaliningrad. This coexistence could potentially slow down the increase in Magpie nesting density, especially in the residential area of the city centre, where the nesting density of the Hooded crow is significantly higher than outside the city centre.

ESTIMASI POPULASI ORANGUTAN (Pongo pygmaeus Wurmbii) DI TAMAN HUTAN RAYA LAPAK JARU KABUPATEN GUNUNG MAS PROVINSI KALIMANTAN TENGAH

This research aims to determine the nest density and population of orangutans and the characteristics of orangutan nests in the Lapak Jaru Grand Forest Park (Tahura), Gunung Mas Regency, Central Kalimantan Province. The method used is strip transect, namely by making a path 1000 m long and 20 m wide on each side of the path and a total of 10 lanes. The calculation results of the average density of orangutan nests at the research location were 30.99 nests/km2 and the Orangutan population is estimated at 29.36 Orangutan individuals. The type of tree where most nests are found is Merawan (Silver sp), Meranti (Shorea sp), and Bumps/Bleeding (Santiria corferta) and based on the most dominant family is the Dipterocarpaceae family. The height of the tree where orangutans nest is 11-15 m with a percentage of 21.67%. The most commonly found diameter of nesting trees is 11-20 cm in diameter with a percentage of 64.67%. The nest height most preferred by orangutans is 16-20 m with a percentage of 28.30%. The most frequently found orangutan nest class is class 3 with a percentage of 35.85% and class 4 with a percentage of 33.96%, and the most frequently found orangutan nest position in the research location is position 2 with a percentage of 37.74%.

The win-stay, lose-switch renesting strategy of a territorial bird endemic to subtropical salt marshes

IntroductionThe “win-stay, lose-switch” (WSLS) strategy used by birds involves decisions to maintain or alter the characteristics of the subsequent nest according to the outcome of the previous one. In salt marshes, nest failure occurs due to flooding, predation, or tipping, creating a trade-off for nest placement: it should be low enough to avoid predators from above and tipping by the wind, and high enough to avoid flooding. In salt marshes of Southern Brazil, predation from above is carried out by rails that also prey on nests from below, promoting nondirectional pressure capable of neutralizing bird responses. We aim to test the WSLS strategy and to assess its adaptive significance for Formicivora acutirostris, the only thamnophilid endemic to salt marshes. Our general premise is that the adoption of the WSLS strategy would vary in response to the fate of the previous nest, considering also the environment type.MethodsWe evaluated the fate, environment type, height, altitude, and thickness of nests of F. acutirostris in southern Brazil, between 2006 and 2023. We assessed the effects of the nest attributes, tested the adoption of the WSLS strategy, and explored its adaptive significance using generalized linear mixed models. We also examined the influence of factors such as nest environment, nesting timing, and pair age on nest fate and parental behavior.ResultsWe studied 98 renesting cases. Flooded nests were at a lower height than predated, tipped, and successful nests, and tipped nests were thicker than flooded and successful nests. Nest heights differed among environment types. The species adopted the WSLS strategy by increasing nest height after flooding, but we do not support its adaptive significance. No additional factors influenced the behavior of the species.DiscussionAlthough the adoption of the WSLS strategy by F. acutirostris was confirmed regarding the increase in nest height after flooding, it did not result in a significant increase in reproductive success, suggesting that other pressures, such as predation and tipping, are limiting the adaptive potential of this strategy. We emphasize the threat of the high reproductive failure for the conservation of F. acutirostris and proposes reducing predation pressure as an important conservation strategy.

Communal nesting ecology of Little Tern (Sternula albifrons) and Small Pratincole (Glareola lactea) in two seasonally emerged riverine islands in Bangladesh

Abstract The nesting ecology of two wetland-dependent bird species, the Little Tern (Sternula albifrons) and the Small Pratincole (Glareola lactea) were studied in two seasonally emerged riverine islands, locally named as charlands in Padma River of Bangladesh. A total of 269 and 299 nests of Little Tern and Small Pratincole were found in the breeding season of 2022. We monitored 70 nests of the two species from two charlands, and the nesting success was 74.28% and 78.57%, respectively. No correlation was found between nesting success of both species in relation to clutch size, nest height, nest depth and presence of vegetation near nest. We found strong positive correlation between nesting success and nest distance to river for Little Tern. Nesting success was higher if the Little Tern’s nests were located far from the river channel. However, no such trends were observed for Small Pratincole in the study area. The main factor affecting Little Tern nesting success was nest predation by avian predator (n = 6) and tropical storms (n = 3). On the contrary, eight Small Pratincole nests were predated by avian predators and four nests were lost due to storm. However, in case of 12 deserted nests (with unhatched eggs) of both species, no apparent reasons were identified. The study suggests that these charlands, if protected from human interferences, can provide great breeding support for colonial ground nesting waterbirds.

Factors influencing nest site selection of the Laughing Dove (Spilopelia senegalensis) in an urban area in Karaj, Iran

Abstract Urban habitats are rapidly changing, making the conservation and management of species adapted to these environments challenging. Nest site selection is a pivotal point in the process of habitat selection and breeding for bird species. We measured 10 structural and spatial characteristics at 32 nest presence sites and 64 randomly selected nest absence sites of Laughing Doves (Spilopelia senegalensis) in an urban environment in Karaj, Iran. To model the nest site selection, we performed spline binary logistic regression. Two variables significantly influenced the nest site selection of Laughing Doves: nest height above ground, with an optimal range of ~286–347 cm, and nest concealment, favoring invisible places from the front and sides. Distance to opposite building, with an optimal range of ~16–34 m, was marginally significant. Additionally, we surveyed the feasibility of occupying artificial nestboxes (n = 17) by Laughing Doves between February and September 2019. The occupancy rate of the artificial nestboxes was ~35%. Overall, these results suggest that despite the relatively high structural heterogeneity of our urban environment, Laughing Doves exhibit distinct preferences for certain nest site characteristics, which may reflect a dependence on close proximity to humans for safety and access to food and water.

Nest Defense Behavior of Suburban and Rural Red-shouldered Hawks†

ABSTRACT Urban and suburban raptors live in close proximity to humans, and some species defend their nests and young vigorously, even diving at or striking humans walking on the ground. Such raptors may be more defensive of their nests than rural birds. We investigated (1) whether Red-shouldered Hawk (Buteo lineatus) nest defense behavior differs between suburban and rural birds, (2) whether any environmental conditions are associated with aggressive nest defense, and (3) whether nest defense behavior is associated with reproductive rate. First, we used an experimental walk-up protocol to approach nests with incubating or brooding Red-shouldered Hawks at suburban and rural sites, and we scored the hawk’s response to our approach. We measured environmental variables (nest height, distance to the nearest road and nearest house, and habitat proportions within 500 m of the nest) and determined reproductive rate. Second, we used our historical database to retrospectively classify hawks as most aggressive, moderately aggressive, or not aggressive, and we measured the same environmental variables at their nest sites. We found that most birds at both suburban and rural study areas responded to our experimental approach with minimal nest defense, though suburban birds responded with higher levels of nest defense. Environmental variables were unrelated to nest defense intensity in the experimental study. For the retrospective study in the suburban area, nest height was the only environmental factor distinguishing aggressive hawks from non-aggressive ones; aggressive nest defensive behavior was associated with lower nests. Reproductive rate was unrelated to nest defense behavior in both studies. Knowing which environmental factors may contribute to more aggressive behavior may help researchers, managers, and residents better understand bird behavior and predict the circumstances under which problems might develop, particularly in urban/suburban environments.

Nesting behaviour of Neotropical social wasps of the genus Clypearia de Saussure (Hymenoptera: Vespidae: Polistinae)

ABSTRACT Social insects have developed different nest defence strategies; for example, social wasps use nonaggressive mechanisms or aggressiveness, including stinging. This subject has been widely examined in the literature, and it may help improve our understanding of wasps’ ecology. The nesting behaviour of some genera is still poorly known. In this paper, we report new information on the nesting behaviour of the species Clypearia in different Brazilian biomes. We observed six nesting events in natural and anthropic environments of the Amazon rainforest, Atlantic forest, and Cerrado domains, sporadically from 2004 to 2022. From our observations, we suggest that Clypearia nest defence includes (i) preference for nest camouflage rather than aggressive behaviour; (ii) selection of nesting sites close to water sources in natural or anthropic environments, and eventually obtaining food from the substrate; (iii) nesting association with ants for mutual protection against predators; and (iv) variations in the nests’ height. Our records suggest nest camouflage and association with ants are strategies for nest defence. These may have influenced nest height in relation to the ground, which may also vary according to the environment explored by the species.

Outcomes of community-led urban rat control on avifauna

Cities are increasingly recognised as important sites for biodiversity and essential for improving human-nature connections. However, urban areas are also hotspots for rats, which negatively impact biodiversity due to competition and depredation. Urban residents may undertake rat control on their properties, but the effectiveness of such volunteer initiatives for broader biodiversity outcomes has not been tested in urban environments. We conducted a comprehensive study inclusive of rat abundance, adult bird diversity, and bird breeding success. We monitored rat (Norway rat Rattus norvegicus; ship rat Rattus rattus) presence and modelled detection probabilities and occupancy in suburban residential backyards in Auckland, New Zealand. We also compared bird abundance and richness among backyards and recorded 140 nesting attempts from 15 bird species between September 2021 and February 2022. Despite rat control, rats were detected at some point in all backyards, though relative abundance was low, and fewer rats were detected in backyards with more frequent rat control. Higher bird abundance, and to a lesser extent richness, were associated with proximity to native vegetation patches and more frequent rat control. Overall fledging success was relatively high and predation by rats was relatively low compared to previous research. Nest survival was slightly higher for introduced bird species. Daily nest survival rate increased with nest height, proximity to native vegetation patches, and when rat detection rates decreased. Although the effect was small, frequent rat control within a backyard was associated with increased fledging success and increased bird species richness and abundance. Further research is required to explore the factors that interact with backyard rat control to improve local outcomes for birds. High levels of community participation in backyard rat control are required to improve neighbourhood-wide outcomes for birds.

Characteristics of Orange-Footed Scrubfowl (Megapodius reinwoardt) Nests in Kerandangan Natural Tourism Park West Lombok

Orange-footed scrubfowl (Megapodius reidwardt) are protected species and need to be preserved. Orange-footed scrubfowl (Megapodius reidwardt) are terrestrial birds that build nests on the ground. To maintain its sustainability, it is necessary to have knowledge about the characteristics of orange-footed scrubfowl nests. Kerandangan Natural Tourism Park is one of the places where orange-footed scrubfowl are found, but until now there is still no information about the characteristics of orange-footed scrubfowl nests. So this study aims to analyze the characteristics of orange-footed scrubfowl nests in Kerandangan Natural Tourism Park. The method used in this research is descriptive exploration, the research variables include physical parameters of the nest, environmental parameters of the nest, chemical parameters of the nest mound and plant vegetation around the nest. The results showed that the diameter of the nest ranged from 400-590 cm with a nest height of 85-154 cm, the number of laying holes ranged from 1-3 holes and the soil texture class of the nest mound consisted of sandy loam and loam. Environmental parameters obtained average temperature outside the nest 27,9oC, average temperature inside the nest 28,6oC, average humidity outside the nest 80,3%, humidity inside the nest 81,2% and light intensity ranged from 98,1-834,1 lux in the morning, 437,8-4014,8 lux in the afternoon, and 45,7-653,8 lux in the afternoon. Chemical parameters obtained organic matter content ranged from 1,4%-3,2% and pH ranged from 6,8-7. Vegetation that had the highest INP in each nest was Voacanga foetida, Inga edulis, Artocarpus elasticus, and Bambusa bambos, these plant species act as materials for building nest mounds and potentially as food for orange-footed scrubfowl.

Ecological drivers of nesting behavior in a subtropical city: An observational study on spotted doves.

Due to rapid homogenization in habitat types as a result of urbanization, some urban birds adapt their nesting strategies to changes in local habitat characteristics. Bird nesting decisions might have been mainly linked to resource constraints and ensuring reproductive success. In this study, we examined patterns of nesting behavior by spotted doves (Spilopelia chinensis) in a rapidly urbanizing area of Nanchang, China using ArcGIS 10.8, satellite tracking, camera traps, and field survey. To explore the mechanisms underlying nesting behavior in urban habitats, we assessed the correlations between nest reuse and reproductive success, and between nest reuse and nest predation. From December 2018 to December 2021, a total of 302 breeding nests were surveyed. The results revealed that the nest reuse rate was 38.08% (n = 115). Nests closer to trunk, with lower nest position and higher large-scale urbanization score tended to have higher reuse rate. In addition, nests with the higher the nest height and percent of canopy cover, and the lower small-scale urbanization score were more likely to reproduce successfully, and the reused nests also reproduce more successfully. The reproductive success associated with nest reuse was significantly higher than that associated with new nests (χ 2 = 8.461, p = .004). High degree of urbanization promoted nest reuse of spotted doves (large-scale urbanization score, z = 2.094, p = .036), which apparently enhanced their reproductive success (nest reuse, z = 2.737, p = .006). In conclusion, a nest structure with good permeability is the material basis for the nest reuse in spotted dove, while the relatively low risk of predation in urban habitat and the scarcity of nest site resources due to urbanization increase the tendency of birds to reuse old nests, which is associated with their reproductive success and evolutionary fitness.

Morphological Characteristics and Nest Structure of Stingless Bee (Heterotrigona itama) from Different Meliponiculture Practices

Exploration of Heterotrigona itama biology characteristics besides being valuable for health and biodiversity also beneficial as well as an environmental bioindicator. This research aims to evaluate morphology characteristics and nest structure of stingless bee Heterotrigona itama from three different meliponiculture practices (MP1:meliponiculture in the back yard; MP2:meliponiculture in the rubber garden and MP3: meliponiculture in the side yard) in Banjar Regency, Indonesia. The parameters studied are morphology, nest design, colony structure, and environmental suitability. One-way ANOVA at a 95% confidence level was used to analyze differences between parameters. The results show Heterotrigona itama body size average from rubber gardens is bigger (7.11±0.60 mm) than the side yard (6.79±0.34 mm) and back yard (6.64±0.46 mm). The degree of difference is visible in the fore leg (α=0.00<0.05) and hind leg (α=0.004<0.05). The nest structure in MP3 was significantly different than MP1 and MP2, especially in terms of funnel length (p=0.007<0.05) and nest height from the ground (p=0.000<0.05). Environmental conditions MP3 (temperature 31.69±1.93 0C, humidity 60.70±11.2 % and water source) is more supportive for meliponiculture than MP2 (disturbed by household waste) and MP3 polluted by chicken farms. Meliponicultures practices based on various locations and environmental characteristics influence several parameters of Heterotrigona itama morphology and nest structure.

CFD analysis of the complex japanese pufferfish nest

Existing research on the pufferfish species (Torquigener Albomaculosus) has shown that its nest structure has a certain impact on flow velocity. This study aims to investigate the nest-building behavior by using different materials. A 3D model will be created based on nest geometry, and 2D simulations will be conducted by using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Furthermore, the study examines the nest’s fluid dynamics characteristics in its original state, with varied materials and heights. Results demonstrate that the nest reduces flow velocity, adapts to external flow conditions, and enhances shear strength with rough materials. Additionally, nest height affects internal circulation area and pressure. This unique structure protects the spawning area, improves oxygen transport, and strengthens the nest. The study further expands biomimetic engineering applications and suggests future interdisciplinary research directions.

Breeding of the ‘Critically Endangered’ White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis in the Shan Highlands, Myanmar

Recent studies have shown the importance of Myanmar for the conservation of three ‘Critically Endangered’ vulture populations. From November 2022 to March 2023, we carried out rapid surveys on vulture nests and nesting tree characteristics in Ke Hsi Township, Shan Highlands. We recorded 10 nests of White-rumped Vultures, Gyps bengalensis, on five nesting trees from four different localities. Six nests were active, and six nestlings were observed; four nests were inactive or abandoned. Most of the nests were recorded on Ficus spp. and the mean nest height was 13.6 m (SD ± 4.1) above ground. This represents the first confirmed record of the breeding success of White-rumped Vultures from Shan Highlands and confirms the ongoing presence of the species in Shan States. The population of G. bengalensis in Shan Highlands is small, but the confirmed breeding is significant in the wider context for this species.

Description and Preferences of Tarsier (Tarsius supriatnai) Nest Trees in Nantu Wildlife Reserve, Gorontalo

Tarsiers (Tarsius supriatnai) were part of the endemic primates in Sulawesi categorized as vulnerable in the IUCN red list. Therefore, this research aimed to describe and analyze the characteristics, preferences, and determinant factors influencing the use of nest trees by tarsiers in Nantu Wildlife Reserve, Gorontalo. This research used a direct observation method to collect data for three months, from September to November 2013, focusing on temperature, humidity, light intensity, tree height, tree diameter, nest height from the ground, and frequency of nest use. Moreovr, the Neu index was applied to determine nest preferences and multiple linear regression analysis was used to analyze the factors influencing nest tree selection. The results showed that the primates preferred eight nest trees, including Ficus altissima (w=1.58) and Ficus benjamina (w=1.50). Multiple linear regression analysis showed that the humidity (4.103±3.674%, P>0.05) and light intensity (126.362±41.149 lx, P<0.05) became dominant factors influencing the frequency of nest use. The results generally showed that vegetation species and microclimate conditions were crucial for tarsiers, indicating the importance of preserving forest areas to ensure the conservation of these primates.

Breeding performance and nest-site selection of Woodchat Shrikes Lanius senator near the southern edge of their breeding distribution

Numerous Woodchat Shrike (Lanius senator) populations, and Laniidae in general, are globally declining. A deeper understanding of their breeding ecology, including their nest-site selection and breeding performance, from hatching success to post-fledging survival, could contribute to their conservation. We studied breeding Woodchat Shrikes near the southern edge of their breeding range in Northern Israel, monitoring breeding pairs throughout the breeding season from March to July 2023 in three study areas at the slopes of the Golan Heights in a semi-open shrubland. We collected data on birds’ nesting success, including hatching and fledging success, as well as on breeding pairs’ productivity and post-fledging survival of Woodchat Shrikes. Furthermore, we gathered information on nest-site characteristics. In this part of their range, Woodchat Shrikes breed in relatively high densities, opportunistically selecting nest-sites within the area. Most pairs had at least two brood attempts and up to four were recorded. On average breeding pairs laid 4.63 eggs per brood, with a decreasing brood size later in the season. Breeding performance was not related to the nest-site characteristics with the exception of nest height above the ground, which had a positive influence on nesting success. The breeding performance of Woodchat Shrikes was relatively low compared to other studies, particularly when considering fledging success. Nest predation was likely a predominant cause for nest failures here; however, breeding pairs were able to substantially increase their breeding success with replacement broods. Compared to the low nesting success, the post-fledging survival was relatively high, indicating much higher predation pressure on nests compared to fledglings.

Savannah chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) nesting behavior in the unprotected area of Tikankali near to a mining exploitation and the Niokolo Koba National Park in Senegal

This work focuses on the nesting behavior of the West African chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) in the anthropized habitats of the village of Tikankali and its surroundings. Studies on chimpanzee nesting behavior are carried out at several sites of Senegal but never in Tikankaly. Thus, proximity with the Niokolo Koba National Park and the presence of a gold mining industry mean that data on chimpanzee nesting behavior and anthropogenic impacts in their habitats for decisions-making about chimpanzee conservation in this area. We recorded a total of 213 chimpanzee nests during two surveys over a distance of 47.81 km (i.e., 47.81 km x 2). Data were collected in October 2020 and October 2021. The majority of nests (63%) were found in wooded savannah, 19% in bamboo savannah, 09% in gallery forest and 07% in open forest. The results showed that 22 plant species belonging to 08 families are used for chimpanzee nests in and around Tikankali. However, half of the nests were in Pterocarpus erinaceus (53%); followed by Hexalobus monopetalus (8%); Diospyros mespiliformis (6%), Piliostigma thonningii (6%), Lannea acida (6%); and Grewia bicolor (4%). The average height of trees used as chimpanzee nest supports was 9.88 m (SD=3.60) and the average height of nests was 7.46 m (SD=3.23). Linear regression analysis (r=0.84; N=213; p< 0.05) suggested a preference for nesting at a particular height but also that nest height is a function of the supporting tree’s height. The current study contributes to the knowledge of chimpanzee nesting behavior in Tikankali, the anthropogenic disruption and will help in the implementation of a good chimpanzee management and conservation strategy in Senegal.

Updating Chimpanzee Nesting Data at Mount Assirik (Niokolo Koba National Park, Senegal): Implications for Conservation.

The Niokolo Koba National Park (NKNP) is the largest protected area in Senegal and lies at the northern limit of the chimpanzee's range in West Africa. Recent information on nesting behavior and factors influencing nesting behavior is available for several sites outside NKNP. However, the information available for NKNP is obsolete. Considering that the adequate management of chimpanzee populations cannot be achieved without strong scientific knowledge, it is essential to update data on chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes verus, nesting behavior in NKNP. For this reason, we surveyed their habitat in Mt. Assirik and recorded 626 chimpanzee nests. The results of the study showed that chimpanzees nest more often in closed-canopy habitats such as gallery forests. The average nest height observed in this study was 8.07 ± 0.36 m, varying between 2 and 20 m, which is well below the heights described in most sites where chimpanzees cohabit with large carnivores. Botanical surveys confirmed that chimpanzees select tree species bearing their nests. In Assirik, 12 of the 37 tree species bearing nests are the most used. The nest decay rate (or the time it takes for a nest to go from the fresh to the skeletal stage) at Assirik averaged 68.8 ± 5.8 days.

Population Status and Colony Characteristics of Eleonora’s Falcon (Falco eleonorae) in the National Marine Park of Alonissos—Northern Sporades, Greece

Eleonora’s Falcon is the commonest bird of prey in Greece, with more than 80% of the global population breeding on Greek islands. The aim of this study was to assess the population status and the colony characteristics for the species in the National Marine Park of Alonissos—Northern Sporades. Every island was circumnavigated twice in order to count individual birds and active nests during the breeding season of the species in 2021 by boat. Colony characteristics including nest category, nest height above sea level and nest orientation were recorded. The species was recorded nesting in 13 (12 uninhabited and 1 inhabited) out of 29 islands involving a total of 329 active nests. Most nests were in cliff cavities located between 12 m and 400 m above sea level, and had predominantly north-westerly and westerly orientations. These findings may inform conservation management decisions including minimization of disturbance in colonies, safeguarding colonies under threats, eradicating invasive species and protecting and enhancing the breeding habitat of the species in the specially protected area of the National Marine Park of Alonissos—Northern Sporades.

Parental Care and Nest Site Properties in the European Roller, Coracias Garrulus in a Novel Breeding Site

I investigated parental behavior and nest site occupancy of the European Roller, Coracias garrulus in a novel breeding site, retaining walls with numerous embedded 10 cm diameter pipes in 2020–2022 in northern Turkey, Corum. I also searched the literature to review parental behavior and length of parental care in egg and nestling stages in other members of the order Coraciiformes. European Rollers occupied 6 holes for 12 nesting attempts across three years. Nest height from the ground was 4.7 ± 0.3 m (n = 12). I video-recorded the nest holes in the early morning during the incubation and nestling periods for 22.9 and 25 hours in total, respectively. Males and females shared incubation and nestling provisioning tasks. Nest attentiveness was 97.9% ± 0.79. Average feeding rate of nestlings was 10.86 ± 2.15 trips h-1. Feeding rates increased from early (5.94 ± 1.09 h-1) to late (15.8 ± 2.04 h-1) nestling ages, significantly. Ultimately, the comparisons among species in the order showed that the vast majority of species were relatively similar in development times but that little data is available on parental behavior. The latter emphasizes the great need for more study of parental behavior in this order.