Water Temperature Heat Research Articles

Enhancement of heat transfer using ultrasonic waves: Experimental investigation and empirical correlations

This work aimed to investigate the effect of ultrasonic waves on heat transfer enhancement under a subcooled pool condition. For this purpose, a cylindrical rod is submerged in distilled water and a 1.7 MHz ultrasonic transducer was utilized to generate ultrasonic waves. Three main parameters were examined including loaded heat flux, water temperature, and heights (distance from ultrasonic transducer). A Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) is used as a non-intrusive flow visualization system to visualize how ultrasonic waves propagate in a water medium. The results obtained without imposing ultrasonic waves are compared with that of the results where ultrasonic waves are imposed, the average heat transfer rate with imposing ultrasonic waves is increased by 133%, while the increasing in enhancement factor is about 2.4 times at (H = 22 mm). Meanwhile, the increase in water temperature led to decreases in the heat transfer rate, this decreasing in the heat transfer rate is the most with Tw = 50 °C and it's around 46.8%, while it's about 17.2% with Tw = 40 °C under similar conditions. Effect of heated surface height is also investigated and analyzed, the ultrasonic waves are influential in the case of changing height and improved the enhancement factor by 3.52 times at (H = 65 mm). By using the database obtained under test conditions, empirical correlations were proposed to evaluate the real benefits of using ultrasonic waves in heat transfer enhancement.

Droop control for district heating networks: Solution for temperature control of multi-energy system with renewable power supply

In a district heating system, the flow of heated water transfers enthalpy from the generation side to the load side. It is thus critical to maintain the supply temperature at a desired level. However, with the rise of renewable energy sources in the district heating network, the temperature of the heated water tends to be disturbed. This calls for a deployment of thermal energy storage. To effectively exploit the flexibility of thermal energy storage, the relationship between the temperature of the district heating water and the power sharing with other thermal energy resources is considered in this paper. Based on this relationship, the concept and realization of a droop control for the district heating network is proposed. It is shown how the droop characteristic between the temperature of the heated water and the power sharing of the thermal energy storage for the district heating network is developed in analogy to the droop control used in an electrical dc network. The droop characteristic so supports the control of a district heating network. The theoretical considerations are complemented by application to a residential district heating network model to illustrate the functionality of the control. The studies are conducted with the program PSCAD, which is otherwise typically used for simulating electromagnetic transients.

Development of tin copper alloys in shell and tube evaporator heat exchanger systems in ocean thermal energy converse power plant

A case study of the manufacture of an OTEC factory on a floating ship has been carried out using 100 MW Titanium material at a fairly expensive cost, so the OTEC system was researched using a copper-tin alloy. The behavior of the tin-copper heat exchanger between the Aspen Plus simulation and the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation on Shell And Tube evaporators of Bonnet Divided Flow fixed and Bonnet One-pass Shell fixed (BEM) types is investigated. The difference in temperature between water at sea level of 29 °C and water at a depth of 1000 meters at a temperature of 5 °C is assumed to produce electricity. A marine thermal energy conversion power plant is a continuous source of energy sourced from nature an evaporator heat exchanger with ammonia working fluid will produce power that can drive a turbine forwarded to a generator. The simulation results of CFD of a Bonnet Divided Flow fixed type Heat Exchanger on the hot water inlet line has a temperature of 29.9 °C, when exiting the evaporator shell the temperature decreases to 26.4 °C. At the inlet line, the working fluid of ammonia enters the evaporator at 7.9 °C and when it leaves the tube, the temperature rises to 26.3 °C. The best results of the simulation of Aspen Plus Heat Exchanger type BEM Inlet Ammonia temperature 8 °C and at CFD 7.99 °C. Meanwhile, at the ammonia outlet at 28 °C and in the CFD simulation, the ammonia outlet temperature was 28.21 °C. Aspen Plus Inlet heating water temperature is 30 °C, and in CFD simulation, the temperature is 29.99 °C. While the heating water outlet is 28 °C, and in the CFD simulation, the heating water outlet is 28.15 °C. The conclusion from the simulation results is that the BEM-type heat exchanger is very good and suitable for experimental prototyping.

Performance analysis of a solar parabolic trough collector fitted with a helical coiled tube absorber

The SPTC is used for medium- and high-temperature applications. Several works are carried out for the enhancement of heat transfer of SPTC using size variation, absorber with inserts, nanofluid with working medium and different configurations of the absorber. The development of turbulence effect in the working fluid is important for heat transfer enhancement. Therefore, a novel idea is introduced to use a helical coiled tube absorber in the PTC, which enhances the heat transfer between the tube and the flowing fluid by providing swirling motion. The current research work uses the helical coiled tube absorber which consists of 42 turns and 2 m in length, 10 mm in internal diameter and 12.5 mm in outer diameter. It is enclosed by a glass envelope to reduce thermal losses. The experiments are conducted by varying the mass flow rate of water from 0.01 kg s−1 to –0.03 kg s−1. The maximum achieved useful heat gain, water temperature and instantaneous efficiency are 800 W, 64°C and 56%, respectively while using the flow rate of 0.01 kg s−1.

Evaluation of gap-filling methods for CH4 flux data based on eddy covariance method in the Lake Taihu, China

Eddy covariance method has become a key technique to measure CH4 flux continuously in lakes. A large number of CH4 flux data was missing due to variable reasons. In order to reconstruct a complete time series of CH4 flux, it is necessary to find an appropriate gap-filling method to insert the CH4 flux data gap. Based on the routine meteorological data and CH4 flux data measured at Bifenggang site in the eastern part of the Taihu eddy flux network during 2014 to 2017, we analyzed the control factors of CH4 flux at the half-hour scale and daily scale. With those data, we tested that whether nonlinear regression method and two machine learning methods, random forest algorithm and error back propagation algorithm, could fill the CH4 flux gap at the half-hour scale and daily scale. The results showed that CH4 flux at the half-hour scale was mainly influenced by sediment temperature, friction velocity, air temperature, relative humidity, latent heat flux and water temperature at 20 cm in the growing season, and was mainly affected by relative humidity, latent heat flux, wind speed, sensible heat flux and sediment temperature in non-growing season. The CH4 flux at the daily scale was mainly affected by latent heat flux and relative humidity. Random forest model was the best in CH4 flux data gap filling at both time scales. The random forest model with the input variables of day of year, solar elevation angle, sediment temperature, friction velocity, air temperature, water temperature at 20 cm, relative humidity, air pressure, and wind speed was more suitable for filling the CH4 flux data gap at the half-hour scale. The random forest model with the input variables of day of year, sediment temperature, friction velocity, air temperature, water temperature at 20 cm, relative humidity, air pressure, wind speed, and downward shortwave radiation was more suitable for filling CH4 flux data gap at the day scale. The interpolation models could fill the data gap better at daily scale than that at the half-hour scale.

A Study on Heating Characteristics and the Evaluation Method of Thermal Radiation Performance based on SPS-B KEAA 0033-7274 for Dry Floor Heating System

제품의 성능 및 안정성에 대한 소비자 신뢰의 부재로 인하여 건식 바닥 난방은 짧은 공사기간, 시공비 절감 등의 장점에도 불구하고 대중화가 많이 이뤄지지 못하고 있다. 이에 따라 본 연구에서는 건식 바닥난방의 특성을 습식 바닥 난방과의 비교 시험을 통하여 파악하고, 단체표준 SPS-B KEAA 0033-7274에 기초한 방열능력시험 수행 결과를 통하여 소비자의 사용 간 필요한 기준으로 마련된 건식 바닥 난방 패널의 성능 측정법을 소개하고자 한다. 시험실은 외기 온도 설정을 위해 내실과 외실로 구분하였으며, 내실은 대한주택공사의 온돌난방에 관한 기준 (대한주택공사 난방배관(50510) 기준) 등을 따르는 분양면적 약 95 m2 규모의 주택으로 구성하였다. 건/습식 바닥 난방의 특성을 비교한 결과 각각의 축열량 특성에 따라 건식 바닥 난방은 설정 온도 도달 시간이 짧고 이때의 소비량이 적었으며, 습식 바닥 난방은 설정 온도 도달 후 설정 온도 유지에 효과적이었다. 단체표준에 따른방열량 시험은 총 2회 수행되었으며, 각각을 CASE1과 CASE2로 명칭 하였다. 입구 공기와 난방수 간의 평균온도는 CASE1과 CASE2 각각 (30.6 ± 0.79) ℃ 그리고 (31.6 ± 0.93) ℃을 나타냈고, 유량은 각각 2.99 l/min ± 1.82%와 3.03 l/min에서 ± 0.80%으로 시험 조건을 모두 만족하였다. 이때 최종적으로 CASE1과CASE2의 방열능력 차이는 0.56%로 시험 데이터에 대한 유효성을 확보하였다.Dry floor heating system has advantage for short construction period and cost reduction but popularization of this system has depressed, due to absence of consumer confidence on performance and safety. In this study, we investigate the heating characteristics of dry floor heating system compared to wet floor heating system and introduce the evaluation method and results on thermal radiation performance of dry floor heating system based on SPS-B KEAA 0033-7274. The testing rooms were divided into an inner room and an outer room to set the outer temperature. The inner room which has area of 95 m2 was built based on standard of ondol floor heating system. As results of the comparison test between dry and wet floor heating system, the dry heating system showed shorter time to reach the set temperature and consumed less gas consumption. The wet heating system has advantage for retaining the set temperature. The evaluations of thermal radiation performance were performed twice based on SPS-B KEAA 0033-7274, and they were called by CASE1 and CASE2, respectively. the average temperatures between inlet air temperature and heating water temperature were (30.6 ± 0.79) ℃ of CASE1 and (31.6 ± 0.93) ℃ of CASE2. The flow rates of heating water satisfied test conditions as 2.99 l/min ± 1.82% of CASE1 and 3.03 l/min ± 0.80% of CASE2. The difference of thermal radiation performance between CASE1 and CASE2 was 0.56%. This result shows that the validity of test data is secured.

High Accuracy Electric Water Heater using Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS)

Nowadays, water heater is a common household appliance. Water heater can be divided into three types, based on fuel sources: gas, diesel, and electric. Electric water heater is the most common due to its ease of use. The problems that often occur on electric water heater are over-temperature due to user error in setting up the thermostat and inaccurate readings caused by a conventional system control. These problems will cause a surge in power consumption. Over-temperature and conventional control inaccuracies can be overcome using the Artificial Intelligence (AI) control algorithm in the form of an adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS). The proposed algorithm acts as a control by maintaining the stability of the temperature to obtain more accurate results. An accurate temperature reading can lower power consumption in electric water heater. This study tries to simulate Electric Water Heater temperature control using the ANFIS algorithm until stable readings can be achieved in all temperature settings. Results from disturbance tests in the form of external condition that causes sudden temperature change show that the system can maintain stability with an average error margin of 0.045% and the rate of accuracy of 99.955%.

Cyanobacterial Bloom Phenology in Green Bay Using MERIS Satellite Data and Comparisons with Western Lake Erie and Saginaw Bay

Cyanobacteria blooms have been reported to be increasing worldwide. In addition to potentially causing major economic and ecological damage, these blooms can threaten human health. Furthermore, these blooms can be exacerbated by a warming climate. One approach to monitoring and modeling cyanobacterial biomass is to use processed satellite imagery to obtain long-term data sets. In this paper, an existing algorithm for estimating cyanobacterial biomass previously developed for MERIS is validated for Green Bay using cyanobacteria biovolume estimates obtained from field samples. Once the algorithm was validated, the existing MERIS imagery was used to determine the bloom phenology of the cyanobacterial biomass in Green Bay. Modeled datasets of heat flux (as a proxy for stratification), wind speed, water temperature, and gelbstoff absorption along with in situ river discharge data were used to separate bloom seasons in Green Bay from bloom seasons in nearby cyanobacteria bloom hotspots including western Lake Erie and Saginaw Bay. Of the ten-year MERIS dataset used here, the highest five years were considered “high bloom” years, and the lowest five years from biomass were considered “low bloom” years and these definitions were used to separate Green Bay. Green Bay had a strong relationship with gelbstoff absorption making it unique among the water bodies, while western Lake Erie responded strongly with river discharge as previously reported. Saginaw Bay, which has low interannual bloom variability, did not exhibit a largely influential single parameter.

Parametric sweep simulation for greenhouse temperature field optimization: An Italian case study

The increasing importance of protected cultures in the last decades has led to the definition of aims for greenhouse design and functioning, in order to conjugate productivity and environmental sustainability. In particular, the optimization of greenhouses is finalized to better solar radiation adsorption and ensure to the crops a homogeneous temperature field for the whole growth time. An Italian case study is presented in this paper: the studied farm needs to project greenhouse geometry and design a hot-water pipes heating system to cultivate basil during the winter season, improving the exploitation of natural resources. A simulative analysis has been carried out by mean of COMSOL Multiphysics software, investigating the effects of greenhouse height, number of pipes and water temperature of the heating system on the inside temperature field through a parametric sweep approach. Twenty-seven scenarios have been simulated and three of them have been considered suitable for the farm applications. The simulative approach allows to collect data about the minimum number of pipes, the sensitivity of the internal temperature field to the outside temperature fluctuation (referred also to the height of the greenhouse) and the more suitable heating water temperature needed to ensure the required habitat to the basil crops, minimizing also temperature fluctuations.

Operating characteristics of a 15 W free-piston Stirling generator

Free-piston Stirling generators (FPSGs) show great potential in portable power sources for the advantages of high reliability, high efficiency, low noise, compact structure, long lifetime, etc. An FPSG aimed at 15 W electric power output is numerically and experimentally studied. By adopting the second method of Lyapunov, the onset characteristics of the FPSG are analyzed based on a thermodynamic model. The effects on the onset conditions of the interaction between the displacer and power piston are explored. It is shown that the optimal operating pressure and spring stiffness corresponding to the lowest onset heating temperature are 6.2 MPa and 5500 N/m, and the FPSG is easier to start when the damping of the displacer and power piston is smaller and the mass of the displacer and power piston is well matched. The experimental results of the effects of the pressure and spring stiffness on the onset temperature agree well with the calculated results. The FPSG can generate 15.5 W electric power with a thermal-to-electric efficiency of 16.0% in the experiment when the heating and chilling water temperatures are 820 K and 300 K, respectively. And the relative errors between the calculated and experimental PV power and their efficiencies are about 2.1%–6.8% and 24.4%–26.9%, respectively. This work can lay a good foundation for studying the onset characteristics and stable operating characteristics of FPSGs.

Effects of pipe turns on vertical helically coiled tube heat exchangers for water heating in a household refrigerator

A new coupled numerical model of the overall vapor-compression cycle and water heater was developed in order to analyze the influence of condenser coil designs on the heat transfer process of a helical coil heat exchanger immersed in a storage tank. The model was developed using the CFD code ANSYS Fluent. In the numerical simulation, the helical condenser coil was treated as an internal heat source and the initial heat flux was obtained from experimental results and delivered to each coil element in the CFD model as boundary condition.The coupled model was validated with experimental results and showed that the numerical results of the proposed model are in good agreement with the experimental data with the deviation of ± 1.6%. Then, the impact of the main representative geometrical parameter on the overall heat transfer coefficient and water temperature distribution was investigated. The results indicated that the temperature distribution and overall heat transfer coefficient increase with the increase of the pipe turns of a helically coiled tube heat exchanger.

Viability on the desorption and air condensation of water in a compact membrane-based microchannel desorber-condenser for cooling applications

A new membrane-based desorber, directly coupled with an air-cooled condenser is experimentally tested. The working fluid is a LiBr-H2O solution that flows through the desorber in micro channels 2 mm width and 100 μm thick. To desorb the vapour from the solution, hot water circulates in a counter flow arrangement in channels, with the same geometry. A hydrophobic membrane with a pore diameter of 45 μm separates the confined solution from the cavity where the generated vapour is immediately condensed. Forced air convection is used to cool the finned condenser. The experimental performance of the new compact design is evaluated. Tests have been carried out varying the solution mass flow rates (40 ml/min, 50 ml/min and 60 ml/min) and the heating water temperatures (70 °C, 80 °C and 90 °C). The experiments show the viability of operation of the new design (combination of desorber and air-cooled condenser in a unique compact device) with the production of 0.1 to 0.17 kg/h of water vapour when the power input to the desorber ranges from 150 to 275 W. The heat simultaneously dissipated in the condenser ranges from 60 W to 120 W at condensing temperatures in the range from 37 °C to 47 °C. Desorption rates obtained vary from 0.002 to 0.004 kg/m2s. Measured pressure drops through the micro channels are in the order of 70 Pa/m. The results demonstrated the feasibility of increasing compactness in absorption systems with a performance of cooling power to total volume ratio of a chiller, equal to 10.75 kW/m3, higher than conventional systems.

60 Running Water While Bathing Is a Risk Factor for Pediatric Scald Burns

IntroductionScalds are the most common mechanism of burn in children, and a significant proportion of these injuries are associated with bathing. Burns sustained while bathing present a unique opportunity for injury prevention; previous studies have examined lowering water heater temperatures, however reputable infant bathing educational resources do not explicitly recommend avoiding running water and the risks that it could pose. In an effort to inform prevention programs, this study seeks to determine the incidence and circumstances of running water in bathing scald burns at our institution.MethodsA retrospective review was performed of records from an American Burn Association verified center over a ten year period (1/1/2010 to 12/31/2019). This center treats both children and adults and is affiliated with an academic hospital in a major urban center. The burn database was queried for scald injuries in children less than three years involving bathing. The Child Advocacy and Protective Services team provides inpatient consultation for all children less than three years old with burn injuries allowing us to analyze the specific events surrounding the bathing scald burns in this cohort.ResultsA total of 123 patients met inclusion criteria. Three bathing safety risk factors were specifically noted in the chart review: (1) running water, (2) lack of caregiver presence for duration of bathing, and (3) failure of caregiver to check water temperature before bathing. Of the cases identified, 107 (87%) had clear documentation of running water as part of the history of injury, 66 (54%) cases involved failure of caregiver to check the water temperature before bathing and 53 (43%) cases did not have a caretaker present for the duration of the bath. In cases with only one risk factor, running water was identified in 34 (94%) out of 36 cases, and in cases with one or two risk factors, running water remained the primary risk factor with 38 (90%) out of 42 cases. When looking at the combination of risk factors, only three (2%) cases had no risk factors while 77 (63%) involved two or more risk factors.ConclusionsThe vast majority of bathing burn injuries in this series involved running water. In addition, a significant number of scald burns occurred from running water alone, even without the other identified risk factors. Conversely, only 2% of scald burns associated with bathing featured none of these three risk factors, suggesting that these injuries could be greatly impacted by safe bathing education.

Holistic Operational Signatures for an energy-efficient district heating substation in buildings

District heating (DH) is recognized as a sustainable energy infrastructure in cities and buildings. DH substation operation is essential to bridging the gap between plants and thermal clients in achieving the intended DH values and visions. Therefore, in this study, an operation analysis method was developed for building-side DH substations. Specifically, Holistic Operational Signature (HOS) was suggested with multiple signature elements (x-OS) and representations to consider comprehensive operational correlations. A HOS-based analytics is proposed to provide more insights and sound reasoning about the DH substation design, operation, control, and heating efficiency potentials, compared with the existing Energy Signature. In a case study for winter, the proposed HOS method was applied to a target DH substation serving actual residential buildings using the real operational datasets. The six HOSs (HOSs 1–6) were derived with their six elements to identify the representative heating consumption levels and patterns, partial heating load ratios, and operation and control efficiency. Excessive water flow rates were identified based on the partial heating load elements (less than 50% in most cases) of all signatures. Inefficient signatures (HOSs 1–4) that do not follow the conventional control principle according to outdoor air temperatures were captured, especially for high heating demand patterns, which accounted for 72.5% of the total in winter. According to the signatures, the demand-based control can decrease the heating supply temperature setpoint by about 1.4 °C and 0.6 °C, respectively for HOS2 and the winter. It is recommended that the valve operation should be improved to lower the hunting levels (within ±1.5 °C) of heating water temperature control, especially in the afternoon with low heating demands.

Hot-Air Drying Characteristics of Sea Cucumber (Apostichopus japonicus) and Its Rehydration Properties

Drying is one of the most common methods for processing and preserving sea cucumber. Based on the research of pretreatment and drying process, this paper develops a dried sea cucumber product that can be quickly rehydrated in only 8 hours. By setting the pretreatment at heated water temperature of 80°C and the drying temperature from 30°C to 60°C, the fitting model is found by comparing empirical formulas and artificial neural networks. The ANN-based model was demonstrated to fit the experimental data for the adequate drying of sea cucumber. Following the increased drying temperature, the drying time was decreased and the rehydration ratio was increased. The sensory evaluation and texture properties dried at 40°C and 50°C were much better than those dried at 30°C and 60°C. Microstructure of rehydrated dried sample showed that increasing the temperature leads to the increase of fiber pore space, and the rehydration rate increases. The results of drying time and the rehydration properties of sea cucumber showed that 50°C is the best drying condition for hot-air drying of sea cucumber. The developed rapid rehydration dried sea cucumber can effectively simplify the rehydration time and steps of the dried sea cucumber and improve the quality of the sea cucumber, and it is considered to be a good technology for drying the sea cucumber and making a fast rehydration dried sea cucumber that can be further used for value-added product.

Analysis of a variable auxiliary volume predictive-controller for an auxiliary-energy producer with a stratified solar thermal combistorage

Status quo controllers of auxiliary-energy system in a hybrid thermal energy system use a simple dual-auxiliary-zone method where the maximum temperature and maximum volume of the space heating (SH) and domestic hot water (DHW) loads on highest consumption day in a year are utilized. Due to this simple control, there are high storage losses in the winter period an also less storage space available for the renewable production. In this paper, the authors propose a novel predictive control strategy with the use of stratified thermal storage. The control strategy is further, in terms of as ideal simulation study, investigated for a decentral thermal energy system in southern Germany with solar thermal collectors and a gas boiler auxiliary energy system for a stratified combistorage with DHW and SH loads. The obtained results in a Sonnenhaus standard single-family house show that the auxiliary energy input is reduced by 650 kWh (6%) annually with a maximum of 190 kWh reduction in March. Moreover, in the month of March, a 5% increment in terms of solar thermal fraction and a 5.5% decrement in terms of the gas boiler fraction is achieved. And by better use of the storage, especially during the winter months (November to March), a 16–20% reduction in storage losses is achieved. Annually, 2.2% reduction of gas boiler fraction, 4.6% reduction of storage loss and 1.8% increase of solar fraction are attained.

Thermodynamic investigations on an integrated heat pump with thermal storage for wind-solar hybrid heating

Heating with wind and solar energy is an effective way to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Vapor Compression Heat Pumps (VCHP) were generally used to improve the utilization rate of wind power. However, normal VCHP driven by wind power or solar energy has low performances in low temperature environment and low supply temperature of heating water, and it is also difficult to achieve continues and stable heating because of the intermittence of wind power. The present paper introduces a new integrated heat pump system, in which a VCHP absorbs heat from the environment and sends it to an Absorption Heat Pump (AHP) as its low temperature heat source after temperature lift. Thermal storage system is also equipped for continues heating and it serves as the driving force of the AHP. The results show that the integrated heat pump can produce heating water at 50 °C or even higher with a COP of about 1.42 when the environment temperature is as low as −30 °C. Also, the power consumption of the VCHP accounts for only 5%–18% of the total energy input. This indicates that the energy consumed by the integrated heat pump can be mainly from off-peak electricity produced by the wind turbine.

Accelerating Upstream Together: Achieving Infant Health Equity in the United States by 2030.

Accelerating Upstream Together: Achieving Infant Health Equity in the United States by 2030.

Factors Affecting the Time and Process of CMC Drying Using Refractance Window or Conductive Hydro-Drying.

Intensive research on biodegradable films based on natural raw materials such as carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) has been performed because it enables the production of transparent films with suitable barrier properties against oxygen and fats. Considering the importance of the production of this type of film at the industrial level, a scalable and continuous drying method is required. Refractance window-conductive hydro drying (RW-CHD) is a sustainable and energy-efficient method with high potential in drying this kind of compound. The objective of this study was to evaluate the factors (CMC thickness, heating water temperature, and film type) and radiation penetration depth that affect drying time and energy consumption. It was found that drying time decreased with increasing temperature and decreasing thickness. Similarly, energy consumption decreased with decreasing temperature and thickness. However, the drying time and energy consumed per unit weight of product obtained were equivalent when drying at any of the thicknesses evaluated. Film type had little effect on time and energy consumption compared to the effects of temperature and CMC thickness. The radiation penetration depth into the CMC was determined to be 1.20 ± 0.19 mm. When the thickness was close to this value, the radiation energy was better utilized, which was reflected in a higher heating rate at the beginning of drying.

Influence of Hot Water Temperature and Use Patterns on Microbial Water Quality in Building Plumbing Systems

This study examines the influence of chlorine disinfectant type, water use frequency (stagnation time), and water heater temperature on the growth and persistence of microbes, including nontubercul...