Heating Of Magnetic Nanoparticles Research Articles

A Thermofluid Analysis of the Magnetic Nanoparticles Enhanced Heating Effects in Tissues Embedded with Large Blood Vessel during Magnetic Fluid Hyperthermia

The thermal effect developed due to the heating of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) in presence of external magnetic field can be precisely controlled by the proper selection of magnetic absorption properties of the MNPs. The present paper deals with the numerical simulation of temperature field developed within or outside the tumor, in the presence of an external alternating magnetic field, using a thermofluidic model developed using ANSYS FLUENT®. A three-layer nonuniform tissue structure with one or two blood vessels surrounding the tumor is considered for the present simulation. The results obtained clearly suggest that the volumetric distribution pattern of MNPs within the tumor has a strong influence on the temperature field developed. The linear pattern of volumetric distribution has a strong effect over the two other types of distribution considered herein. Various other important factors like external magnetic field intensity, frequency, vascular congestion, types of MNP material, and so forth are considered to find the influence on the temperature within the tumor. Results show that proper selection of these parameters has a strong influence on the desired therapeutic temperature range and thus it is of utmost importance from the efficacy point of view of magnetic fluid hyperthermia (MFH).

Magnetic nanoparticles with high specific absorption rate of electromagnetic energy at low field strength for hyperthermia therapy.

Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs), referred to as the Dartmouth MNPs, which exhibit high specific absorption rate at low applied field strength have been developed for hyperthermia therapy applications. The MNPs consist of small (2-5 nm) single crystals of gamma-Fe2O3 with saccharide chains implanted in their crystalline structure, forming 20-40 nm flower-like aggregates with a hydrodynamic diameter of 110-120 nm. The MNPs form stable (>12 months) colloidal solutions in water and exhibit no hysteresis under an applied quasistatic magnetic field, and produce a significant amount of heat at field strengths as low as 100 Oe at 99-164 kHz. The MNP heating mechanisms under an alternating magnetic field (AMF) are discussed and analyzed quantitatively based on (a) the calculated multi-scale MNP interactions obtained using a three dimensional numerical model called the method of auxiliary sources, (b) measured MNP frequency spectra, and (c) quantified MNP friction losses based on magneto-viscous theory. The frequency responses and hysteresis curves of the Dartmouth MNPs are measured and compared to the modeled data. The specific absorption rate of the particles is measured at various AMF strengths and frequencies, and compared to commercially available MNPs. The comparisons demonstrate the superior heating properties of the Dartmouth MNPs at low field strengths (<250 Oe). This may extend MNP hyperthermia therapy to deeper tumors that were previously non-viable targets, potentially enabling the treatment of some of the most difficult cancers, such as pancreatic and rectal cancers, without damaging normal tissue.

Magnetic thermoablation stimuli alter BCL2 and FGF-R1 but not HSP70 expression profiles in BT474 breast tumors.

Magnetically induced heating of magnetic nanoparticles (MNP) in an alternating magnetic field (AMF) is a promising minimal invasive tool for localized tumor treatment that eradicates tumor cells by applying thermal stress. While temperatures between 42°C and 45°C induce apoptosis and sensitize the cells for chemo- and radiation therapies when applied for at least 30 minutes, temperatures above 50°C, so-called thermoablative temperatures, rapidly induce irreversible cell damage resulting in necrosis. Since only little is known concerning the protein expression of anti-apoptotic B-cell lymphoma 2 (BCL2), fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGF-R1), and heat shock protein (HSP70) after short-time magnetic thermoablative tumor treatment, these relevant tumor proteins were investigated by immunohistochemistry (IHC) in a human BT474 breast cancer mouse xenograft model. In the investigated sample groups, the application of thermoablative temperatures (<2 minutes) led to a downregulation of BCL2 and FGF-R1 on the protein level while the level of HSP70 remained unchanged. Coincidently, the tumor tissue was damaged by heat, resulting in large apoptotic and necrotic areas in regions with high MNP concentration. Taken together, thermoablative heating induced via magnetic methods can reduce the expression of tumor-related proteins and locally inactivate tumor tissue, leading to a prospectively reduced tumorigenicity of cancerous tissues. The presented data allow a deeper insight into the molecular mechanisms in relation to magnetic thermoablative tumor treatments with the aim of further improvements.

Magnetic Properties of Magnetic Nanoparticles for Efficient Hyperthermia

Localized magnetic hyperthermia using magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) under the application of small magnetic fields is a promising tool for treating small or deep-seated tumors. For this method to be applicable, the amount of MNPs used should be minimized. Hence, it is essential to enhance the power dissipation or heating efficiency of MNPs. Several factors influence the heating efficiency of MNPs, such as the amplitude and frequency of the applied magnetic field and the structural and magnetic properties of MNPs. We discuss some of the physics principles for effective heating of MNPs focusing on the role of surface anisotropy, interface exchange anisotropy and dipolar interactions. Basic magnetic properties of MNPs such as their superparamagnetic behavior, are briefly reviewed. The influence of temperature on anisotropy and magnetization of MNPs is discussed. Recent development in self-regulated hyperthermia is briefly discussed. Some physical and practical limitations of using MNPs in magnetic hyperthermia are also briefly discussed.

Structural properties of magnetic nanoparticles determine their heating behavior - an estimation of the in vivo heating potential.

Magnetically induced heating of magnetic nanoparticles (MNP) in an alternating magnetic field (AMF) is a promising minimally invasive tool for localized tumor treatment by sensitizing or killing tumor cells with the help of thermal stress. Therefore, the selection of MNP exhibiting a sufficient heating capacity (specific absorption rate, SAR) to achieve satisfactory temperatures in vivo is necessary. Up to now, the SAR of MNP is mainly determined using ferrofluidic suspensions and may distinctly differ from the SAR in vivo due to immobilization of MNP in tissues and cells. The aim of our investigations was to study the correlation between the SAR and the degree of MNP immobilization in dependence of their physicochemical features.In this study, the included MNP exhibited varying physicochemical properties and were either made up of single cores or multicores. Whereas the single core MNP exhibited a core size of approximately 15 nm, the multicore MNP consisted of multiple smaller single cores (5 to 15 nm) with 65 to 175 nm diameter in total. Furthermore, different MNP coatings, including dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA), polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyethylenglycol (PEG), and starch, wereinvestigated. SAR values were determined after the suspension of MNP in water. MNP immobilization in tissues was simulated with 1% agarose gels and 10% polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) hydrogels.The highest SAR values were observed in ferrofluidic suspensions, whereas a strong reduction of the SAR after the immobilization of MNP with PVA was found. Generally, PVA embedment led to a higher immobilization of MNP compared to immobilization in agarose gels. The investigated single core MNP exhibited higher SAR values than the multicore MNP of the same core size within the used magnetic field parameters. Multicore MNP manufactured via different synthesis routes (fluidMAG-D, fluidMAG/12-D) showed different SAR although they exhibited comparable core and hydrodynamic sizes. Additionally, no correlation between ζ-potential and SAR values after immobilization was observed.Our data show that immobilization of MNP, independent of their physicochemical properties, can distinctly affect their SAR. Similar processes are supposed to take place in vivo, particularly when MNP are immobilized in cells and tissues. This aspect should be adequately considered when determining the SAR of MNP for magnetic hyperthermia.

RF heating of magnetic nanoparticles improves the thawing of cryopreserved biomaterials

While vitrified cryopreservation holds great promise, practical application has been limited to smaller systems (cells and thin tissues) due to diffusive heat and mass transfer limitations, which are typically manifested as devitrification and cracking failures during thaw. Here then we describe a new approach for rapidly and uniformly heating cryopreserved biospecimens with radiofrequency (RF) excited magnetic nanoparticles (mNPs). Importantly, heating rates can be increased several fold over conventional boundary heating techniques and are independent of sample size. Initial differential scanning calorimetry studies indicate that the addition of the mNPs has minimal impact on the freeze-thaw behavior of the cryoprotectant systems themselves. Then proof-of-principle experiments in aqueous and cryoprotectant solutions demonstrate the ability to heat at rates high enough to mitigate or eliminate devitrification (hundreds of °C/min) and scaled heat transfer modeling is used to illustrate the potential of this innovative approach. Finally, X-ray micro-computed-tomography (micro-CT) is investigated as a planning and quality control tool, where the density-based measurements are able to quantify changes in cryoprotectant concentration, mNP concentration, and the frozen state (i.e. crystallized versus vitrified).

The Expeimental Setup for Measuring of Thermal Parameters of Magnetic Fluids in AC Magnetic Field

Magnetic nanoparticle heating in alternating magnetic field is the novel approach to the hyperthermia technique for cancer treatment. The accurate measuring of the specific heat absorption rate of the magnetic fluid is the critical issue in the search for efficient materials to minimize the concentration of the magnetic nanoparticles in human tissues. In this work the heat absorption measurement setup consisting of a system of the magnetic field generation, a temperature measuring system, a cooling system, and an external computer control system has been developed. The results of the calibration as well as the results of measurements on the cobalt ferrite nanoparticles are presented.

Comparison of a Single Optimized Coil and a Helmholtz Pair for Magnetic Nanoparticle Hyperthermia

Magnetic nanoparticles in a tumor can induce therapeutic heating when energized by an alternating magnetic field from a current-carrying coil outside the body. We analyzed a single-turn, air-core coil carrying a filamentary current to quantify the power absorbed by: a) magnetic nanoparticles at depth in tissue and b) superficial tissue in response to induced eddy currents; we defined this quotient as power ratio (PR). Given some limit on the eddy current heating tolerated by an alert patient, maximizing the PR maximizes the power absorbed in the tumor; all else being equal, this increases the thermal dose delivered to the tumor. The mean eddy current heating rate tolerated in four clinical studies we reviewed equaled 12.5 kW/m (3). We differentiated our analytical expression for PR with respect to the radius of the coil to find the value of radius that maximizes PR. Under reasonable simplifying assumptions, the optimal value of coil radius equaled 1.187 times the depth of the nanoparticle target below the body surface. We also derived the PR of two coils surrounding the body configured as a Helmholtz pair. We computed PR for combinations of nanoparticle depths below the surface and axial locations with respect to the coils. At depths less than 4.6 cm, the optimized single coil had a higher PR than that of the Helmholtz pair and furthermore produced less total ohmic heating within the coil. These results were independent of driving frequency, nanoparticle concentration, tissue electrical conductivity, and magnetic nanoparticle heating rate, provided the latter is assumed to be proportional to the product of frequency and the square of the local magnetic field. This paper supports the clinical application of current-carrying coils to deliver efficacious hyperthermia therapy to tumors injected with magnetic nanoparticles.

A thermo-fluid analysis in magnetic hyperthermia

In the last years, hyperthermia induced by the heating of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) in an alternating magnetic field received considerable attention in cancer therapy. The thermal effects could be automatically controlled by using MNPs with selective magnetic absorption properties. In this paper, we analyze the temperature field determined by the heating of MNPs, injected in a malignant tissue, subjected to an alternating magnetic field. The main parameters which have a strong influence on temperature field are analyzed. The temperature evolution within healthy and tumor tissues are analyzed by finite element method (FEM) simulations in a thermo-fluid model. The cooling effect produced by blood flow in blood vessels from the tumor is considered. A thermal analysis is conducted under different distributions of MNP injection sites. The interdependence between the optimum dose of the nanoparticles and various types of tumors is investigated in order to understand their thermal effect on hyperthermia therapy. The control of the temperature field in the tumor and healthy tissues is an important step in the healing treatment.

Effect of magnetic nanoparticle heating on cortical neuron viability

Purpose: Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles are currently approved for use as an adjunctive treatment to glioblastoma multiforme radiotherapy. Radio frequency stimulation of the nanoparticles generates localised hyperthermia, which sensitises the tumour to the effects of radiotherapy. Clinical trials reported thus far are promising, with an increase in patient survival rate; however, what are left unaddressed are the implications of this technology on the surrounding healthy tissue.Methods and materials: Aminosilane-coated iron oxide nanoparticles suspended in culture medium were applied to chick embryonic cortical neuron cultures. Cultures were heated to 37 °C or 45 °C by an induction coil system for 2 h. The latter regime emulates the therapeutic conditions of the adjunctive therapy. Cellular viability and neurite retraction was quantified 24 h after exposure to the hyperthermic events.Results: The hyperthermic load inflicted little damage to the neuron cultures, as determined by calcein-AM, propidium iodide, and alamarBlue® assays. Fluorescence imaging was used to assess the extent of neurite retraction which was found to be negligible.Conclusions: Retention of chick, embryonic cortical neuron viability was confirmed under the thermal conditions produced by radiofrequency stimulation of iron oxide nanoparticles. While these results are not directly applicable to clinical applications of hyperthermia, the thermotolerance of chick embryonic cortical neurons is promising and calls for further studies employing human cultures of neurons and glial cells.

Magnetic nanoparticle heating and heat transfer on a microscale: Basic principles, realities and physical limitations of hyperthermia for tumour therapy

In this review article we present basic principles of magnetically induced heat generation of magnetic nanoparticles for application in magnetic particle hyperthermia. After explanation of heating mechanisms, the role of particle–particle as well as particle–tissue interactions is discussed with respect to achievable heating power of the particles inside the tumour. On the basis of heat transfer theory at the micro-scale, the balance between generated and dissipated heat inside the tumour and the resulting damaging effects for biological tissue is examined. The heating behaviour as a function of tumour size is examined in combination with feasible field strength and frequency. Numerical calculations and experimental investigations are used to show the lower tumour size limit for tumour heating to therapeutically suitable temperatures. In summary, this article illuminates practical aspects, limitations, and the state of the art for the application of magnetic heating in magnetic particle hyperthermia as thermal treatment of small tumours.

Magnetothermoacoustics from magnetic nanoparticles by short bursting or frequency chirped alternating magnetic field: A theoretical feasibility analysis

To propose an alternative method of thermoacoustic wave generation based on heating of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) using alternating magnetic field (AMF). The feasibility of thermoacoustic wave generation from MNPs by applying a short-burst of AMF or a frequency-modulated AMF is theoretically analyzed. As the relaxation of MNPs is strongly dependent upon the amplitude and frequency of AMF, either an amplitude modulated, fixed frequency AMF (termed time-domain AMF) or a frequency modulated, constant amplitude AMF (termed frequency-domain AMF) will result in time-varying heat dissipation from MNPs, which has the potential to generate thermoacoustic waves. Following Rosensweig's model of specific power loss of MNPs in a steady-state AMF, the time-resolved heat dissipations of MNPs of superparamagnetic size when exposed to a short bursting of AMF and∕or to a linearly frequency chirped AMF are derived, and the resulted acoustic propagation is presented. Based on experimentally measured temperature-rise characteristics of a superparamagnetic iron-oxide nanoparticle (SPION) matrix in a steady-state AMF of various frequencies, the heat dissipations of the SPION under time-domain and frequency-domain AMF configurations that could have practical utility for thermoacoustic wave generation are estimated. The initial rates of the temperature-rise of the SPION matrix were measured at an iron-weight concentration of 0.8 mg∕ml and an AMF frequency of 88.8 kHz to 1.105 MHz. The measured initial rates of temperature-rise were modeled by Rosensweig's theory, and projected to 10 MHz AMF frequency, at which a 1 μs bursting corresponding to a 1.55 mm axial resolution of acoustic detection could contain 10 complete cycles of AMF oscillation and the power dissipation is approximately 84 times of that at 1 MHz. Exposing the SPION matrix to a 1 μs bursting of AMF at 10 MHz frequency and 100 Oe field intensity would produce a volumetric heat dissipation of 7.7 μJ∕cm(3) over the microsecond duration of the AMF burst. If the SPION matrix is exposed to a 1 ms long AMF train at 100 Oe field intensity that chirps linearly from 1 to 10 MHz, the volumetric heat dissipation produced over each 2π phase change of the AMF oscillation is estimated to increase from 0.15 to 1.1 μJ∕cm(3) within the millisecond duration of the chirping of AMF. The heat dissipations upon SPION (∼1 mg∕ml iron-weight concentration) by a 1 μs bursting of 100 Oe AMF at 10 MHz and a 1 ms train of 100 Oe AMF that chirps linearly from 1 to 10 MHz were estimated to determine the potential of thermal-acoustic wave generation. Although thermoacoustic wave generation from MNPs by time- or frequency-domain AMF applications is predicted, the experimental generation of such a wave remains challenging.

“Design of Poly(ethylene glycol)-Polycaprolactone Diblock Micelles with RGD Targeting Ligands and Embedded Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Thermally-activated Release”

ABSTRACTA thermally-activated micelle consisting of a crystallizable poly(caprolactone), PCL, core and a poly(ethylene glycol), PEG, corona was developed to contain magnetic nanoparticles and anti-cancer agent doxorubicin as well as display a targeting RGD peptide. This system has the potential to target cancer cells, deliver combination hyperthermia and chemotherapy, and offer magnetic resonance imaging contrast. The micelles self-assemble in aqueous solutions and form a crystalline core with a melting transition ranging from 40 to 50 °C, depending on the length of the PCL blocks, with dynamic light scattering showing micelle sizes typically ranging from 20 to 100 nm, depending on block lengths and added drug or nanoparticles. The micelles become unstable as they are heated above their melting point, creating a thermally-activated drug release mechanism. By adding magnetite (Fe3O4) nanoparticles into the PCL core, the micelles can be heated using an externally applied AC magnetic field to induce hyperthermia in combination with the thermally-activated drug release. The polymers and magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) were synthesized and characterized in our laboratories. The melting transitions of the PCL micelle cores were investigated using microcalorimetry. The heating of nanoparticles and magnetomicelles was conducted using a custom-built hyperthermia coil capable of generating fields of several hundred Oersteds at frequencies ranging from 50 to 450 kHz. Heating of MNPs was maximized at high field intensities. RGD peptides were attached to the PEG corona using maleimide chemistry, and the ability of the RGD-derivatized micelles to target integrin-expressing cells was investigated using fluorescent dye PKH26 to identify the localization of micelles in cultured human kidney (293) cells in vitro. The crystallizable (and meltable) cores in these micelles were designed to overcome drug leakage common in liposome systems and release the drug on demand after a period of time for localization to integrin receptors.

Optimal Size of Nanoparticles for Magnetic Hyperthermia: A Combined Theoretical and Experimental Study

AbstractProgress in the prediction and optimization of the heating of magnetic nanoparticles in an alternating magnetic field is highly desirable for their application in magnetic hyperthermia. Here, a model system consisting of metallic iron nanoparticles with a size ranging from 5.5 to 28 nm is extensively studied. Their properties depend strongly on their size: behaviors typical of single‐domain particles in the superparamagnetic regime, in the ferromagnetic regime, and of multi‐domain particles are observed. Ferromagnetic single‐domain nanoparticles are the best candidates and display the highest specific losses reported in the literature so far (11.2 ± 1 mJ g−1). Measurements are analysed using recently a demonstrated analytical formula and numerical simulations of the hysteresis loops. Several features expected theoretically are observed for the first time experimentally: i) the correlation between the nanoparticle diameter and their coercive field, ii) the correlation between the amplitude of the coercive field and the losses, and iii) the variation of the optimal size with the amplitude of the magnetic field. None of these features are predicted by the linear response theory – generally used to interpret hyperthermia experiments – but are a natural consequence of theories deriving from the Stoner–Wohlfarth model; they also appear clearly in numerical simulations. These results open the path to a more accurate description, prediction, and analysis of magnetic hyperthermia.

Magnetic nanoparticle heating efficiency reveals magneto-structural differences when characterized with wide ranging and high amplitude alternating magnetic fields

Magnetic nanoparticles can create heat that can be exploited to treat cancer when they are exposed to alternating magnetic fields (AMF). At a fixed frequency, the particle heating efficiency or specific power loss (SPL) depends upon the magnitude of the AMF. We characterized the amplitude-dependent SPL of three commercial dextran-iron oxide nanoparticle suspensions through saturation to 94 kA/m with a calorimeter comprising a solenoid coil that generates a uniform field to 100 kA/m at ∼150 kHz. We also describe a novel method to empirically determine the appropriate range of the heating curve from which the SPL is then calculated. These results agree with SPL values calculated from the phenomenological Box-Lucas equation. We note that the amplitude-dependent SPL among the samples was markedly different, indicating significant magneto-structural variation not anticipated by current models.

The effect of magnetic nanoparticle dispersion on temperature distribution in a spherical tissue in magnetic fluid hyperthermia using the lattice Boltzmann method

In clinical applications of magnetic fluid hyperthermia (MFH) for cancer treatment it is very important to ensure maximum damage to the tumour while protecting the normal tissue. The resultant heating pattern by magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) in the tumour is closely related to the dispersion of MNPs. In this study the effect of MNPs dispersion on temperature distribution in a tumour and surrounding healthy tissue, during MFH, has been investigated. Accordingly, the Pennes bio-heat equation (BHE) in a spherical tissue with Neumann curved boundary condition has been resolved. The effects of blood perfusion, metabolism heat generation as well as MNPs heat dissipation in an alternating magnetic field as source term, have been considered. To solve the Pennes BHE, the three dimensional lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) has been used. To show the accuracy of the model, simulations have been compared with analytical, experimental and numerical results, reported in the literature. Then, temperature distribution within tissue has been investigated in two cases, homogeneous distribution and Gaussian distribution of specific absorption rate (SAR). Results showed that for the studied cases, unlike homogeneous distribution, Gaussian distribution of SAR is able to raise the temperature of tumour cells above the treatment temperature.

Magnetic nanoparticles: study of magnetic heating and adsorption/desorption for biomedical and environmental applications

This paper presents a summary of research on magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) carried out recently at the Institute of Materials Science. Three families of oxide MNPs namely magnetite, manganite and spinel ferrite materials were prepared by several methods: co-precipitation, sol-gel and high-energy mechanical milling. Magnetite nanoparticles were encapsulated by two natural polymers, starch and chitosan. The structure of the prepared nanosystems was characterised by XRD, SEM, TEM techniques while their magnetisation was measured by VSM and PPMS. The magnetic heating (MH) of both naked and polymer-coated MNPs was studied. We also present two examples of researched applications that can be derived from this effect, namely the use of MH of magnetite NPs coated with starch to kill cancer cells, and the MH-assisted desorption of VOC from SBA/ferrite nanocomposite. Other research application examples include the use of magnetite MNPs to remove heavy toxic metals, such as arsenic, lead and nickel from contaminated water.

Fe–Co–Cr nanocomposites for application in self-regulated rf heating

Fe–Co–Cr alloys have been developed with a Curie temperature, Tc, appropriate for ferrofluid cooling and self-regulated heating applications. These alloys have low Curie temperatures, moderate magnetic moments and provide increased heat capacity in a liquid used in a thermal cycle. Amorphous powders have been synthesized by cryo-SPEX milling melt-spun ribbons at 77 K. Transmission electron microscopy reveals cryomilled magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) with a mean diameter of 4.2 nm to form agglomerates ∼30 nm in size. Vibrating sample magnetometer and superconducting quantum interference device magnetometry of amorphous powders reveal a specific magnetization, σs, of 104 emu/g at 4 K in a 300 mT field and a Tc of 335 K. Nanoparticles were suspended in ferrofluids by ultrasonication with a Pluronic F127 surfactant to stabilize them in aqueous solution. Ferrofluids of varying MNP concentration were rf heated in a 27.2 mT field at 267 kHz. For 1.24 vol % of MNPs in the ferrofluid, a solution reached temperatures&amp;gt;50 °C in ∼70 s, and showed Curie-limiting temperature behavior at ∼75 °C. These results demonstrate self-limited heating of FeCoCr MNPs at 75 °C which may have application in polymer curing.

Metastable γ-FeNi nanostructures with tunable Curie temperature

We report on new metastable γ-FeNi nanoparticles produced by mechanical alloying of melt-spun ribbon using a high energy ball mill followed by a solution annealing treatment in the γ-phase region and water quenching in of the face-centered cubic γ-phase. In the Fe–Ni phase diagram there is a strong compositional dependence of the Curie temperature, Tc, on composition in the γ-phase. This work studies the stabilization of γ-phase nanostructures and the compositional tuning of Tc in Fe–Ni alloys which can have important ramifications on the self-regulated heating of magnetic nanoparticles in temperature ranges of interest for applications in polymer curing and cancer thermotherapies. To date we have achieved Curie temperatures as low as 120 °C by this method.

Evaluation of Hypofractionated Radiation Therapy (HRT) and Magnetic Nanoparticle Heating for Pancreatic Cancer

Evaluation of Hypofractionated Radiation Therapy (HRT) and Magnetic Nanoparticle Heating for Pancreatic Cancer