Healthy Mules Research Articles

Association between the levels of serum cortisol and the presence of gastric ulcers in working mules

Association between the levels of serum cortisol and the presence of gastric ulcers in working mules

Hematology and clinical chemistry in mule foals from birth to two months of age: A preliminary study

In horses and donkeys, age-related changes in hematological and biochemical parameters preclude the use of normal values of adults in the evaluation of foals. This study aimed to obtain data on hematological and biochemical parameters of mule foals from birth up to the second month of life and to assess age-related changes in order to determine if dedicated reference ranges are required in younger animals. Blood samples from seven healthy mule foals were obtained at birth before colostrum consumption, 24 h, 48 h of life, and then weekly until the second month of life. Results were expressed as mean and standard deviation or median, minimum, and maximum values if showing non-gaussian distribution. Kruskal-Walls and Dunn tests were used to verify the differences among sampling times. Significance was set at P < 0.05. Red blood cell count, packed cell volume and hemoglobin decreased from 24 h to one week of age. Mean corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular hemoglobin decreased over the first month. White blood cells increased from birth to seven days of life. Aspartate amino transferase increased while alkaline phosphatase decreased in the first week of life. Urea, creatinine, and lactate decreased, while glucose concentrations increased at 24 h. Ionized calcium and magnesium and total sodium and potassium showed no changes. In mule foals, several laboratory parameters may be the same or intermediate, lower or higher than in equine or donkey foals, but also compared to all other adult species. The preliminary results suggest that for mule foals, age influences hematological and biochemical parameters.

Gastroscopic characterisation and prevalence of gastric ulcer syndrome in working mules in Colombia.

The existing literature does not contain information about the prevalence of gastric ulcers in mules, and on the potential associations between the presence of ulcers and work load, work type, diet, sex, age and body condition score (BCS). To estimate the prevalence and factors associated with mule gastric ulcer syndrome (MGUS) and evaluate its distribution in both mule squamous gastric disease (MSGD) and mule glandular gastric disease (MGGD) mucosa in a population of mules in Colombia. Observational, cross-sectional. A total of 97 clinically healthy mules of different ages and locations in the province of Antioquia (Colombia) were included in this study. The mules were involved in agricultural activities (i.e., riding, pack and ranch mules) at the time of the study. The animals underwent gastroscopic evaluation, and ulcer scores from 0 to 4 were assigned based on severity, with scores ≥2 indicating clinical relevance. The presence or absence of ulcer in the squamous and/or glandular region of the stomach was recorded. Data related to work type, work load and diet, as well as sex, age and BCS were recorded for each mule. Pearson's chi-square test was used to determine the association between the outcomes and explanatory variables of the study (p ≤ 0.05). The results of the risk estimations were presented as odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). The frequency of MGUS in the study population was 42%. Most of the lesions were located in the squamous region of the stomach (27%), mainly in the margo plicatus, and 20% were located in the glandular region, mainly in the fundus and pyloric antrum. Six animals showed lesions in both squamous and glandular regions. Work load was the only variable associated with the presence of MGUS (OR: 1.98; 95% CI: 0.49-0.96) and MSGD (OR: 1.78; 95% CI: 0.36-0.67). Nevertheless, the findings did not provide any significant risk assessment result, nor did they reveal any significant interactions among the other variables. This study used convenience sampling from a limited geographic region, and multivariate analysis was not performed, one of the exclusion criteria was the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, which means that the effect of these drugs can no longer be evaluated. MGUS occurs in mules subjected to agricultural work, the risk factors associated with EGUS do not appear to be significant in mules and other equids subjected to the same conditions, in this region. Further research is needed to define the differential dynamics of MGUS in comparison with the findings in horses.

Evaluation of Blood Glucose and Lactate Concentrations in Mule and Equine Foals

Information about mule physiology is scarce. Glucose and lactate serve as prognostic tools in neonates; thus, real-time evaluations would be beneficial. Our main objective was to measure glucose and lactate concentrations from healthy mule and equine foals from birth to 720 hours. Glucose and lactate concentrations were evaluated with a benchtop Randox Daytona analyzer (LAB) using plasma and with an Accutrend Plus system (ACP) using whole blood. Data were analyzed using PROC MIXED (P < .05), intraclass coefficient correlation and Bland-Altman analysis. Glucose and lactate concentrations from mule and equine foals were different when evaluated with LAB, but there was no difference when evaluated with ACP. Glucose pattern of variation, evaluated with both analyzers for mule and equine foals, had an increase, with subsequent decrease, whereas lactate pattern of variation had initial higher values with subsequent decrease. Intraclass coefficient correlation for glucose was low and moderate for lactate. Results of glucose and lactate with ACP from our experimental neonates were not highly correlated with LAB. However, the ACP had the same pattern of variation for glucose and lactate, thus can still be used clinically for immediate evaluations if the technique is standardized with the specific samples that will be used.

Hematological and Biochemical Reference Intervals for Mules in Chile.

Hematological and biochemical reference intervals are an important tool for health assessment and treatment decision-making in veterinary medicine. Lack of information about reference intervals (RI) in mules force professionals to apply reference intervals developed for horses or donkeys, with the risk of misinterpretation. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine hematological and biochemical RI for healthy mules and compare them with those proposed in literature for horses, donkeys and mules. A total of 142 healthy mules (mixed breed mares × Baudet du Poitou) of both sex, all between 7 and 22 years of age and between 290 and 500 kg of live weight were sampled and 32 blood parameters analyzed in order to calculate reference intervals according to the International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (IFCC) and the Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) standards. The values obtained for Chilean mules were within the RI in three of the 21 variables where data was available for UK donkeys and for three of 22 RI available for working horses in Pakistan; no similarities were found with those from Portuguese mules. In the case of Chilean working horses RI, mules values were within range for 11 of 25 variables. The differences found in blood biochemistry may be explained by husbandry conditions, diet, type of work and biological features. Differences between mules' reference intervals and those from donkeys and working horses highlight the importance of having specific reference values for this equid hybrid and the need to develop further research in mules under different working conditions and genetic background.

Determining factors and interspecific modeling for serum amyloid a concentrations in working horses, donkeys, and mules

Serum amyloid A (SAA) is an acute phase protein and α-globulin that is produced in the liver in response to inflammatory cytokines. Considered a major acute phase protein in most domestic species, its concentrations rapidly decrease after resolution of inflammation, making SAA measurement a useful tool for monitoring the course of inflammation in an individual animal. The objective of this study was to compare SAA values in working equids including mules, donkeys and horses as well as values for different diseases at various times of the year. Samples were collected from 77 equids; 13 mules, 17 donkeys and 47 horses from sick or injured animals who presented to the clinic. Twenty-eight disease clinical diagnoses were compared with most cases being acute colitis. A highly significant differences between species was found when comparing SAA concentrations of mules to horses (P < .001) using Dunn comparison pairwise test. A difference (P < .05) was found between donkeys and horses, but not donkeys to mules (P > .05). The study suggests that SAA can be a helpful tool for disease diagnosis in mules and donkeys and suggests that the inflammatory response of mules maybe less than that of horses and donkeys but future studies evaluating SAA in healthy mules compared to diseased should be conducted.

Grayscale histogram analysis to study the echogenicity and echotexture of the walls of the common carotid arteries of horses and mules

ABSTRACT: Visual inspection of ultrasound examination for assessment of echogenicity and echotexture of blood vessel tissues is a technique routinely used in medical practice in humans. However, simple visual inspection can lead to poor quality diagnoses and errors. The use of grayscale histogram (GSH) analysis has proved to be an efficient technique to quantify the region of interest, allowing minimization of image interpretation errors. This study aimed to evaluate and compare the echogenicity and echotexture of the walls of the common carotid arteries of healthy female horses and mules using the GSH technique and correlate them with age, body mass, and vessel diameters. B-mode ultrasound examinations were performed in the left and right common carotid arteries in three regions (cranial, middle, and caudal) in 11 horses and 11 healthy mules. The GSH of the animals showed heterogeneous walls, but did not differentiate statistically between female horses and mules. The Mean variable of the middle right, middle left and caudal right sides showed differences, more significant in the mules. On the middle right side, the Min variable was different, higher in the mules. On the middle and caudal left side, the variables Max and Mode showed higher values in the mules. For the mules, the age factor presented negative correlation with the Mean, Mode,, Mode(Count), and Mode(Count)/Count(%) variables, and the body mass factor presented negative correlation with the Mode, Mean and Max variables. For the female horses, the body mass factor showed positive correlation with the Mean and Mode variables. Echogenicity of the carotid artery walls differed between female horses and mules, whereas echotexture was heterogeneous and statistically similar among the animals. The age and body mass factors inversely influenced the echogenicity of the mules, but were not significant in the female horses, in which only the body mass factor positively influenced echogenicity.

Reference intervals for hematological and blood biochemistry reference values in healthy mules and hinnies

Little scientific information is known regarding mules and even less is known about hinnies. Due to increased popularity of both as recreational animals which are still commonly found as working equids, there is a need for such basic information for practitioners and owners. The purpose of this study was to begin to establish reference ranges for hematological and biochemical parameters of clinically healthy mules and hinnies compared to those of their sires and dams (horses and donkeys of similar genotype, phenotype within species) used for hybrid offspring production. Such information will contribute to our understanding and attempts to improve management and disease diagnosis of hinnies and mules. Eighty-one healthy equids (n = 30 hinnies, 20 mules, 20 donkeys, and 11 horses) were sampled. Clinical data recorded age, gender, BCS, and temperature. Two 10-mL blood samples were collected by venipuncture of the jugular vein, using “vacutainer” plain and EDTA tubes. These samples were analyzed for RBC, PCV, Hb, WBC, platelets, proteins, fatty acids, electrolytes, enzymes, and glucose. Average and standard deviations were calculated. Kruskal-Wallis test was used to test the significant value. Findings were considered to be significant if P ≤ 0.05. When comparing all parameters among four groups of equids, differences were found for temperature, red blood cell lines, white blood cell lines, electrolytes, and enzymes. Differences in mules and hinnies were seen in RBC, WBC, magnesium, bilirubin, creatinine, and AST. The results are constricted to very few known populations of equid hybrids with similar genetics. In this study, hinnies and mules showed results that were closer to those of horses than those of donkeys. Some differences recorded in hinnies may be related to age: RBC, WBC, MCH, MCV, eosinophils, magnesium, total bilirubin, creatinine, and AST. Findings may help establish new, relevant hematological and biochemical parameters which may prevent medical misdiagnosis. Additional research is needed with larger populations of healthy mules and hinnies.

Metabolic acidosis in healthy mules under general anaesthesia with halothane

ObjectiveTo report the severe metabolic acidosis identified in a group of 11 healthy mules anaesthetized with halothane for castration. Study designData generated from a prospective study. AnimalsEleven mules aged 2.5–8 years, weighing 230–315 kg and 11 horses aged 1.5–3.5 years, weighing 315–480 kg. MethodsAnimals were anaesthetized for castration as part of an electroencephalographic study. Preanaesthetic medication was acepromazine (0.03 mg kg−1) administered through a preplaced jugular venous catheter. Anaesthesia was induced 30–90 minutes later with intravenous thiopental (10 mg kg−1). After orotracheal intubation, anaesthesia was maintained with halothane vaporised in oxygen. The animals’ lungs were ventilated to maintain the end-tidal CO2 concentration between 3.9 and 4.5 kPa (29–34 mmHg). Anaesthetic monitoring included invasive blood pressure measurement via the auricular artery (mules) and submandibular branch of the facial artery (horses). Arterial blood gas samples were drawn from these catheters at three time points during surgery and pH, PaCO2, base excess (ecf) and HCO3− were measured. Values were compared between groups using a Mann–Whitney test. p was taken as <0.05. Results are reported as median (range). ResultsPaCO2 did not differ between groups but pH was significantly lower in mules [7.178 (7.00–7.29)] compared to horses [7.367 (7.24–7.43)] (p = 0.0002). HCO3− values were significantly lower in the mules [16.6 (13.0–22.3) mM] compared to horses [23.7 (20.9–23.7) mM] (p = 0.0001), whilst base excess (ecf) was significantly more negative in the mules [−11.4 (−1.27 to −16) mM] compared to horses [−1.3 (−5.8 to +2.4) mM] (p = 0.0004). Conclusion and clinical relevanceThis study demonstrated severe metabolic acidosis in healthy mules, which may have prompted intervention with drug therapies in a clinical arena. It is probable that the acidosis existed prior to anaesthesia and caused by diet, but other possible causes are considered.

Nodeomics: Pathogen Detection in Vertebrate Lymph Nodes Using Meta-Transcriptomics

The ongoing emergence of human infections originating from wildlife highlights the need for better knowledge of the microbial community in wildlife species where traditional diagnostic approaches are limited. Here we evaluate the microbial biota in healthy mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) by analyses of lymph node meta-transcriptomes. cDNA libraries from five individuals and two pools of samples were prepared from retropharyngeal lymph node RNA enriched for polyadenylated RNA and sequenced using Roche-454 Life Sciences technology. Protein-coding and 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequences were taxonomically profiled using protein and rRNA specific databases. Representatives of all bacterial phyla were detected in the seven libraries based on protein-coding transcripts indicating that viable microbiota were present in lymph nodes. Residents of skin and rumen, and those ubiquitous in mule deer habitat dominated classifiable bacterial species. Based on detection of both rRNA and protein-coding transcripts, we identified two new proteobacterial species; a Helicobacter closely related to Helicobacter cetorum in the Helicobacter pylori/Helicobacter acinonychis complex and an Acinetobacter related to Acinetobacter schindleri. Among viruses, a novel gamma retrovirus and other members of the Poxviridae and Retroviridae were identified. We additionally evaluated bacterial diversity by amplicon sequencing the hypervariable V6 region of 16S rRNA and demonstrate that overall taxonomic diversity is higher with the meta-transcriptomic approach. These data provide the most complete picture to date of the microbial diversity within a wildlife host. Our research advances the use of meta-transcriptomics to study microbiota in wildlife tissues, which will facilitate detection of novel organisms with pathogenic potential to human and animals.

Isolation of a gammaherpesvirus similar to asinine herpesvirus-2 (AHV-2) from a mule and a survey of mules and donkeys for AHV-2 infection by real-time PCR

Equids are commonly infected by herpesviruses, but isolation of herpesviruses from mules has apparently not been previously reported. Furthermore, the genomic relationships among the various equid herpesviruses are poorly characterized. We describe the isolation and preliminary characterization of a mule gammaherpesvirus tentatively identified as asinine herpesvirus-2 (AHV-2; also designated equid herpesvirus-7 (EHV-7)) from the nasal secretions (NS) of a healthy mule in northern California. The virus was initially identified by transmission electron microscopic examination of lysates of cell culture inoculated with NS collected from the mule. A 913 nucleotide sequence of the DNA polymerase gene was amplified using degenerate primers, and comparison of this sequence with those of various other herpesviruses showed that the mule herpesvirus was most closely related to EHV-2 (AHV-2 sequences were not available for comparison). The sequence of a shorter portion (166 nucleotides) of the mule herpesvirus DNA polymerase gene was identical to that of the published sequence of an asinine gammaherpesvirus, previously designated as AHV-4-3 ( AY054992). AHV-2 was detected by real-time polymerase chain reaction assay in the NS of approximately 8% of a cohort of 114 healthy mules and 13 donkeys.

Nutritional investigations and management of captive moose

Historically, moose have been difficult to maintain in captivity when on diets of grass or legume hays and grain due to enteritis that frequently leads to chronic diarrhea/wasting disease. The development of wood-fiber diets has increased the lifespan of moose in captivity, but these diets do not completely prevent chronic wasting. Purina Mills (St. Louis, MO) hypothesized that captive moose are unable to digest starch that escapes the rumen, and therefore abnormal bacterial fermentation in the hindgut causes chronic diarrhea. An earlier study found no evidence of a digestive problem, so we tested the hypothesis that moose have difficulty metabolizing excess propionate produced from the fermentation of starch found in traditional cervid rations and high-grain wood-fiber diets. When challenged with an i.v. propionate load, moose metabolized propionate similar to healthy mule deer and domestic livestock. We then tested the hypothesis that grass forage is an initiating factor to chronic diarrhea/wasting and further hypothesized that grass, alfalfa, and other agriculture-based forages in association with an anaerobic bacteria produce inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) in moose. Captive moose that had ad libitum access to a wood-fiber pelleted moose diet and grazed in grass pastures developed chronic wasting symptoms at 2–4 years of age and died at 4.7 ± 0.3 years unless restricted from grass before the development of advanced symptoms. We isolated Bacteroides vulgatus in the feces and successfully treated a moose with chronic diarrhea/wasting disease with long-term metronidazole therapy, suggesting that the chronic enteritis causing wasting disease arises from a bacteria-associated defective immunosuppressive response similar to IBD in other species. Further support for the IBD cause of wasting in moose is that this animal will relapse within hours if the metronidazole treatment is discontinued even after many months. We developed a highly palatable high-fiber, low-starch moose ration that can be fed as the sole source of nourishment, although additional research and dietary improvements are required. Zoo Biol 16:479–494, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Water economy of the Somali donkey.

Water economy of the Somali donkey.