Healthy Ferrets Research Articles

Variability of serum aldosterone concentrations in pet ferrets (Mustela putorius furo).

OBJECTIVE To explore sources of serum aldosterone concentration variability in a population of healthy and diseased ferrets, determine a preliminary 1 -sided reference interval for serum aldosterone concentration in healthy ferrets, and identify a decision limit to differentiate healthy from diseased ferrets on the basis of serum aldosterone concentration. DESIGN Prospective threshold definition and diagnostic accuracy study. ANIMALS 78 healthy (n = 56) and diseased (22) ferrets. PROCEDURES Serum aldosterone concentrations were measured on consecutively admitted ferrets, and an upper reference limit for aldosterone concentrations was established. Sensitivity and specificity of aldosterone concentration cutoffs to differentiate healthy from diseased ferrets were estimated with receiver operating characteristic curve analysis. RESULTS Measurements of serum aldosterone concentrations in the ferrets showed wide variability, with a median concentration of 4.75 pg/mL (interquartile range, 0.55 to 17.9 pg/mL; range, 0.02 to 283.9 pg/mL) and 76% (59/78) of samples having concentrations < 18 pg/mL. Ferrets that were healthy, older, or sexually inactive had significantly lower aldosterone concentrations. The upper limit of the reference interval for healthy ferrets was 13.3 pg/mL (90% confidence interval, 9.9 to 16.9 pg/mL). Analysis of receiver operating characteristic curves indicated that an aldosterone concentration cutoff value of 7.6 pg/mL differentiated healthy ferrets from diseased ferrets with a sensitivity of 72.7% and specificity of 73.2% (area under the curve, 0.79; 95% confidence interval, 0.67 to 0.91). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results suggested that high aldosterone concentrations should not be considered diagnostic of primary hyperaldosteronism in ferrets. A need exists to develop better tests to identify primary hyperaldosteronism.

Validation of a radioimmunoassay of serum trypsin-like immunoreactivity in ferrets.

Measurement of serum trypsin-like immunoreactivity (TLI) is used to assess exocrine pancreatic function in dogs and cats. Ferrets ( Mustela putorius furo) serve as valuable animal models for human diseases such as cystic fibrosis and other pulmonary diseases, and may be a useful model of other diseases including pancreatitis. We developed and analytically validated a competitive radioimmunoassay (RIA) for measurement of TLI in ferret serum by determination of analytical sensitivity, assay linearity, accuracy of spiking recovery, precision, and reproducibility. Analytical sensitivity of the assay was 0.55 μg/L. Observed-to-expected (O/E) ratio for dilutional parallelism was 90.2-127.9% (mean: 108.1 ± 11.9%). The O/E ratio for spiking recovery was 94.5-113.0% (mean: 103.9 ± 7.2%). The intra- and inter-assay coefficients of variation (CVs) were 2.7-5.7% and 3.5-8.2%, respectively. The reference interval (RI) for serum TLI derived from 31 healthy ferrets was 28-115 μg/L; the 90% confidence interval for the lower and upper limits of the RI were 10.0-32.1 μg/L and 103-126 μg/L, respectively. This TLI RIA is analytically sensitive, sufficiently linear, accurate, precise, and reproducible for the measurement of TLI in ferret serum samples.

CLINICAL VALUE OF FRUCTOSAMINE MEASUREMENTS AND FRUCTOSAMINE-ALBUMIN RATIO IN HYPOGLYCEMIC FERRETS (MUSTELA PUTORIUS FURO)

The objective of this preliminary study was to establish a reference range for plasma fructosamine concentration and fructosamine-albumin ratio in healthy ferrets and to compare these reference intervals to values obtained from hypoglycemic ferrets. Fructosamine concentration has been shown to reflect blood glucose concentration over the previous 1 to 2 weeks in other animal species, and may be a useful indicator of chronic hypoglycemia in ferrets diagnosed with insulinoma. Plasma fructosamine was measured with an automated colorimetric assay using nitroblue tetrazolium. Thirty-two clinically healthy and 5 hypoglycemic ferrets were included in the study. The reference interval in healthy ferrets for fructosamine was 110 (98 to 123) – 203 (191 to 218) μmol/L, and the reference interval for plasma fructosamine-albumin ratio was 5.1 (4.6 to 5.6) – 8.6 (8.2 to 9.0) μmol/g. Results for hypoglycemic ferrets were within the ranges for both fructosamine and fructosamine-albumin ratio. As there were no significant differences between the healthy and hypoglycemic ferrets, this study suggests that fructosamine concentration and fructosamine-albumin ratio are not likely to be useful in determining insulinoma-associated chronic hypoglycemia in ferrets.

Parathyroid Hormone, Ionized Calcium, and 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Concentrations in the Domestic Ferret (Mustela putorius furo)

The objective of this study was to measure parathyroid hormone (PTH), ionized calcium, and 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations in healthy intact adult ferrets. Serum was collected from 16 clinically healthy adult ferrets (8 males and 8 females). Concentrations of PTH and 25-hydroxyvitamin D were measured via commercially available radioimmunoassays validated for humans, dogs, and cats (PTH) plus horses (25-hydroxyvitamin D). Concentrations of ionized calcium (at pH 7.4) were measured using an ion-specific electrode. Median (minimum, maximum) concentrations were as follows: PTH 8.7 (2.2, 24.4)pmol/L, ionized calcium 1.15 (1.09, 1.25)mmol/L, and 25-hydroxyvitamin D 94 (61, 138) nmol/L). Female ferrets had significantly higher concentrations of PTH than male ferrets (female median: 17.1pmol/L; male median: 6.9pmol/L). Associations among PTH, ionized calcium, 25-hydroxyvitamin D, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and weight were evaluated. There was a weak negative correlation between PTH concentration and total calcium concentration in female ferrets. As none of these assays have been validated for use in ferrets, results may provide a baseline for clinicians evaluating ferrets for disorders of calcium homeostasis, parathyroid glands, and paraneoplastic syndromes.

Radiographic and ultrasonographic findings of the spleen and abdominal lymph nodes in healthy domestic ferrets.

ObjectiveTo describe the radiographic and ultrasonographic characteristics of the spleen and abdominal lymph nodes in clinically healthy ferrets.Materials and MethodsFifty‐five clinically healthy ferrets were prospectively recruited for this cross‐sectional study. Three‐view whole body radiographs and abdominal ultrasonography were performed on awake (23 out of 55) or sedated (32 out of 55) ferrets. On radiographs splenic and abdominal lymph node visibility was assessed. Splenic thickness and echogenicity and lymph node length, thickness, echogenicity, number and presence of cyst‐like changes were recorded.ResultsThe spleen was radiographically detectable in all ferrets. On ultrasound the spleen was hyperechoic to the liver (55 out of 55) and mildly hyperechoic (28 out of 55), isoechoic (15 out of 55) or mildly hypoechoic (12 out of 55) to the renal cortices. Mean splenic thickness was 11.80 ±0.34 mm. Lymph nodes were radiographically discernible in 28 out of 55 ferrets and included caudal mesenteric and sublumbar nodes. An average of 9 ±2 lymph nodes (mean± standard deviation; mode 10) were identified in each ferret using ultrasound. A single large jejunal lymph node was identified in all ferrets and had a mean thickness of 5.28 ± 1.66 mm. For other lymph nodes the mean thickness measurements plus one standard deviation were less than 4.4 mm (95% confidence interval: ≤ 3.72 mm).Clinical SignificanceThe information provided in this study may act as a baseline for evaluation of the spleen and lymph nodes in ferrets.

Evaluation of a candidate live attenuated influenza vaccine prepared in Changchun BCHT (China) for safety and efficacy in ferrets

We evaluated the safety and efficacy of a live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) product in ferrets. The BCHT LAIV product was significantly less virulent than wild-type H1N1 virus, when evaluated by comparing virus shedding and histopathologic lesions. The data indicated strong evidence for an attenuated phenotype of LAIV. Furthermore, the vaccine induced robust humoral immune responses in seronegative ferrets, and protected ferrets against development of fever, weight loss and turbinate inflammatory lesions after challenging with H3N2 wide-type influenza virus. Thus, the BCHT LAIV product was safe in healthy seronegative ferrets and protected ferrets against infection of H3N2 influenza virus.

Collateral circulation in ferrets (Mustela putorius) during temporary occlusion of the caudal vena cava

OBJECTIVE To determine whether extent of collateral circulation would change during temporary occlusion of the caudal vena cava (CVC) in ferrets (Mustela putorius), a pressure change would occur caudal to the occlusion, and differences would exist between the sexes with respect to those changes. ANIMALS 8 adult ferrets (4 castrated males and 4 spayed females). PROCEDURES Ferrets were anesthetized. A balloon occlusion catheter was introduced through a jugular vein, passed into the CVC by use of fluoroscopy, positioned cranial to the right renal vein, and inflated for 20 minutes. Venography was performed 5 and 15 minutes after occlusion. Pressure in the CVC caudal to the occlusion was measured continuously. A CBC, plasma biochemical analysis, and urinalysis were performed immediately after the procedure and 2 or 3 days later. RESULTS All 8 ferrets survived the procedure; no differences were apparent between the sexes. Vessels providing collateral circulation were identified in all ferrets, indicating blood flow to the paravertebral venous plexus. Complications observed prior to occlusion included atrial and ventricular premature contractions. Complications after occlusion included bradycardia, seizures, and extravasation of contrast medium. Mean baseline CVC pressure was 5.4 cm H2O. During occlusion, 6 ferrets had a moderate increase in CVC pressure (mean, 24.3 cm H2O) and 2 ferrets had a marked increase in CVC pressure to > 55.0 cm H2O. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Caval occlusion for 20 minutes was performed in healthy ferrets with minimal adverse effects noted within the follow-up period and no apparent differences between sexes. The CVC pressure during occlusion may be prognostic in ferrets undergoing surgical ligation of the CVC, which commonly occurs during adrenal tumor resection.

Characterization of the Localized Immune Response in the Respiratory Tract of Ferrets following Infection with Influenza A and B Viruses.

The burden of infection with seasonal influenza viruses is significant. Each year is typically characterized by the dominance of one (sub)type or lineage of influenza A or B virus, respectively. The incidence of disease varies annually, and while this may be attributed to a particular virus strain or subtype, the impacts of prior immunity, population differences, and variations in clinical assessment are also important. To improve our understanding of the impacts of seasonal influenza viruses, we directly compared clinical symptoms, virus shedding, and expression of cytokines, chemokines, and immune mediators in the upper respiratory tract (URT) of ferrets infected with contemporary A(H1N1)pdm09, A(H3N2), or influenza B virus. Gene expression in the lower respiratory tract (LRT) was also assessed. Clinical symptoms were minimal. Overall cytokine/chemokine profiles in the URT were consistent in pattern and magnitude between animals infected with influenza A and B viruses, and peak expression levels of interleukin-1α (IL-1α), IL-1β, IL-6, IL-12p40, alpha interferon (IFN-α), IFN-β, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) mRNAs correlated with peak levels of viral shedding. MCP1 and IFN-γ were expressed after the virus peak. Granzymes A and B and IL-10 reached peak expression as the virus was cleared and seroconversion was detected. Cytokine/chemokine gene expression in the LRT following A(H1N1)pdm09 virus infection reflected the observations seen for the URT but was delayed 2 or 3 days, as was virus replication. These data indicate that disease severities and localized immune responses following infection with seasonal influenza A and B viruses are similar, suggesting that other factors are likely to modulate the incidence and impact of seasonal influenza. Both influenza A and B viruses cocirculate in the human population, and annual influenza seasons are typically dominated by an influenza A virus subtype or an influenza B virus lineage. Surveillance data indicate that the burden of disease is higher in some seasons, yet it is unclear whether this is due to specific virus strains or to other factors, such as cross-reactive immunity or clinical definitions of influenza. We directly compared disease severities and localized inflammatory responses to different seasonal influenza virus strains, including the 2009 pandemic strain, in healthy naive ferrets. We found that the disease severities and the cytokine and chemokine responses were similar irrespective of the seasonal strain or the location of the infection in the respiratory tract. This suggests that factors other than the immune response to a particular virus (sub)type contribute to the variable impact of influenza virus infection in a population.

Cross-protection against H7N9 influenza strains using a live-attenuated H7N3 virus vaccine

In 2013, avian H7N9 influenza viruses were detected infecting people in China resulting in high mortality. Influenza H7 vaccines that provide cross-protection against these new viruses are needed until specific H7N9 vaccines are ready to market. In this study, an available H7N3 cold-adapted, temperature sensitive, live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) elicited protective immune responses in ferrets against H7N9 viruses. The H7N3 LAIV administered alone (by intranasal or subcutaneous administration) or in a prime-boost strategy using inactivated H7N9 virus resulted in high HAI titers and protected 100% of the animals against H7N9 challenge. Naïve ferrets passively administered immune serum from H7N3 LAIV infected animals were also protected. In contrast, recombinant HA protein or inactivated viruses did not protect ferrets against challenge and elicited lower antibody titers. Thus, the H7N3 LAIV vaccine was immunogenic in healthy seronegative ferrets and protected these ferrets against the newly emerged H7N9 avian influenza virus.

Prevalence of deafness and association with coat variations in client-owned ferrets.

To evaluate the prevalence of congenital sensorineural deafness (CSD) and its association with phenotypic markers in client-owned ferrets. Epidemiological study. 152 healthy European pet ferrets. Brainstem auditory evoked response tests were recorded in ferrets during general anesthesia. Phenotypic markers such as sex, coat color and pattern, coat length (Angora or not), and premature graying trait were assessed. Overall, 44 of the 152 (29%) ferrets were affected by CSD; 10 (7%) were unilaterally deaf, and 34 (22%) were bilaterally deaf. There was no association between CSD and sex or Angora trait, but a strong association between CSD and white patterned coat or premature graying was identified. All panda, American panda, and blaze ferrets were deaf. The ferrets in this study had a high prevalence of CSD that was strictly associated with coat color patterns, specifically white markings and premature graying. This seemed to be an emerging congenital defect in pet ferrets because white-marked coats are a popular new coat color. Breeders should have a greater awareness and understanding of this defect to reduce its prevalence for the overall benefit of the species.

Use of recombinant human thyroid-stimulating hormone for thyrotropin stimulation testing in euthyroid ferrets

To evaluate the effects of IM administration of recombinant human thyroid-stimulating hormone (rhTSH) on plasma total thyroxine (T4) concentrations in euthyroid ferrets. Evaluation study. 25 healthy neutered ferrets (14 female and 11 male) of various ages from 2 populations (laboratory ferrets from Georgia and pet ferrets from Pennsylvania). Each ferret underwent a physical examination and standard hematologic testing to ensure it was healthy and had clinically normal thyroid function. Once determined to be euthyroid, ferrets received a single IM injection of 100 μg of rhTSH. Blood samples were collected into plasma-separator tubes immediately before the rhTSH injection (time 0) and 4 hours after injection to measure T4 concentrations. Males did not differ from females in regard to prestimulation or poststimulation plasma T4 concentrations; however, prestimulation and poststimulation T4 concentrations were significantly different between the 2 groups of ferrets. A significant difference was also identified between prestimulation T4 concentration (mean ± SD, 21.3 ± 6.1 nmol/L) and poststimulation T4 concentration (29.9 ± 8.2 nmol/L). All 25 ferrets had high poststimulation T4 concentrations (median difference, 7. 5 nmol/L; 10% to 90% interval, 3.26 to 17.70 nmol/L [0.25 to 1.38 μg/dL]; range, 2.50 to 20.70 nmol/L [0.19 to 1.61 μg/dL]); this represented a median increase in T4 concentration of 35% (10% to 90% interval, 18% to 81%; range, 8% to 126%). Results suggested that rhTSH can be used for thyrotropin stimulation testing in ferrets when administered IM. According to the findings, a euthyroid ferret should have an increase of approximately 30% in plasma T4 concentration 4 hours after rhTSH injection.

Immune System Cells in Healthy Ferrets

The ferret has emerged as an excellent animal model to characterize several physiologic and pathologic conditions. The distribution and characterization of different types of immune system cells were studied in healthy ferret tissues. Eight primary antibodies were tested for immunohistochemistry in formalin-fixed tissues: anti-CD3, anti-CD79α, anti-CD20, anti-HLA-DR, anti-lysozyme, anti-CD163, anti-SWC3, and anti-Mac387. The anti-CD3 antibody labeled T cells mainly in interfollicular and paracortical areas of lymph nodes, cortex and thymic medulla, and periarteriolar lymphoid sheaths in the spleen. The anti-CD79α and anti-CD20 antibodies immunolabeled B cells located in lymphoid follicles at lymph nodes, spleen, and Peyer patches. The CD79α and CD20 antibodies also labeled cells with nonlymphoid morphology in atypical B-cell locations. The anti-HLA-DR antibody labeled macrophages, some populations of B and T lymphocytes, and different populations of dendritic cells in lymph nodes, Peyer patches, spleen, and thymus. The anti-lysozyme antibody immunolabeled macrophages in the liver, lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus. The Mac-387, CD163, and SWC3 antibodies did not show any positive reaction in formalin-fixed or frozen tissues. To elucidate the origin of the uncommon CD79α/CD20 positive cells, a double immunohistochemistry was carried out using the anti-HLA-DR + the anti-CD79α, the anti-HLA-DR + the anti-CD20, and the anti-lysozyme + the anti-CD79α antibodies. Double labeling was mainly observed when the anti-HLA-DR + the anti-CD79α antibodies were combined. The immunohistologic characterization and distribution of these immune system cells in healthy ferret tissues should be of value in future comparative studies of diseases in ferrets.

Evaluation of intraocular pressure in conscious ferrets (Mustela putorius furo) by means of rebound tonometry and comparison with applanation tonometry

To determine normal intraocular pressure (IOP) values by means of rebound tonometry in unanaesthetised ferrets, and to compare rebound and applanation tonometry, 55 clinically healthy ferrets were included in an...

Expression of sfrp1 and activation of the Wnt pathway in the adrenal glands of healthy ferrets and neutered ferrets with hyperadrenocorticism

Gonadectomy induces the pathogenesis of luteinising hormone receptor positive, androgen and oestrogen producing tumours in the adrenal cortex of ferrets. In mice, the castration-dependent appearance of adrenocortical tumours has been attributed to loss of expression of the tumour suppressor gene Secreted Frizzled Related Protein 1 (sfrp1), a dominant inhibitor of the Wnt pathway, which controls cell proliferation and ‘cell faith’ decisions. This study investigated whether sfrp1 and the Wnt pathway play a similar role in the pathogenesis of hyperadrenocorticism in ferrets. The expression of sfrp1 and three target genes of the Wnt pathway (c-myc, axin2 and cyclinD1) in seven adrenal glands from healthy ferrets and in 13 adrenocortical tumours were studied by quantitative real-time PCR. Nuclear β-catenin staining was assessed by immunohistochemistry. Sfrp1 mRNA expression was up-regulated and axin2 and cyclinD1 were down-regulated in the tumour group in comparison with the control group. Decreased nuclear β-catenin staining supported the decrease in active Wnt signalling in adrenocortical tumours in ferrets. Therefore, it is unlikely that the involvement of sfrp1 and the Wnt pathway in the pathogenesis of adrenocortical tumours in ferrets is similar to that described in mice.

Reference ranges for laboratory parameters in ferrets

The purpose of this study was to establish reference ranges (robust methods) for 51 laboratory parameters in ferrets for use in private practice. Current literature concerning reference values in ferrets...

Ferret Thoracic Anatomy by 2-Deoxy-2-(18F)Fluoro-D-Glucose (18F-FDG) Positron Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography (18F-FDG PET/CT) Imaging

The domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo) has been a long-standing animal model used in the evaluation and treatment of human diseases. Molecular imaging techniques such as 2-deoxy-2-(18F)fluoro-D-glucose (18F-FDG) positron emission tomography (PET) would be an invaluable method of tracking disease in vivo, but this technique has not been reported in the literature. Thus, the aim of this study was to establish baseline imaging characteristics of PET/computed tomography (CT) with 18F-FDG in the ferret model. Twelve healthy female ferrets were anesthetized and underwent combined PET/CT scanning. After the images were fused, volumes of interest (VOIs) were generated in the liver, heart, thymus, and bilateral lung fields. For each VOI, standardized uptake values (SUVs) were calculated. Additional comparisons were made between radiotracer uptake periods (60, 90, and >90 minutes), intravenous and intraperitoneal injections of 18F-FDG, and respiratory gated and ungated acquisitions. Pulmonary structures and the surrounding thoracic and upper abdominal anatomy were readily identified on the CT scans of all ferrets and were successfully fused with PET. VOIs were created in various tissues with the following SUV calculations: heart (maximum standardized uptake value [SUVMax] 8.60, mean standardized uptake value [SUVMean] 5.42), thymus (SUVMax 3.86, SUVMean 2.59), liver (SUVMax 1.37, SUVMean 0.99), right lung (SUVMax 0.92, SUVMean 0.56), and left lung (SUVMax 0.88, SUVMean 0.51). Sixty- to 90-minute uptake periods were sufficient to separate tissues based on background SUV activity. No gross differences in image quality were seen between intraperitoneal and intravenous injections of 18F-FDG. Respiratory gating also did not have a significant impact on image quality of lung parenchyma. The authors concluded that 18F-FDG PET and CT imaging can be performed successfully in normal healthy ferrets with the parameters identified in this study. They obtained similar imaging features and uptake measurements with and without respiratory gating as well as with intraperitoneal and intravenous 18F-FDG injections. 18F-FDG PET and CT can be a valuable resource for the in vivo tracking of disease progression in future studies that employ the ferret model.

Urine specific gravity values in clinically healthy young pet ferrets (Mustela furo)

To determine urine specific gravity values in clinically healthy pet ferrets and explore possible associations with sex, sampling techniques, hydration status and urine analytes. Sixty-nine entire ferrets of both sexes, under one year of age, were included in this study. Physical examination, complete blood count, blood biochemistry, urine microscopy, urine dipstick and urine specific gravity were performed on all ferrets. Urine specific gravity was determined using a handheld urine refractometer. Statistical analysis was performed to determine urine specific gravity value intervals and to test for associations with sex, sample collection method, packed cell volume, plasma total protein concentrations and urine analytes. Urine specific gravity differed by sex in ferrets as females exhibited a lower urine specific gravity (P<0·001). There was no significant correlation between urine specific gravity, sampling method, packed cell volume/total protein and urine dipstick analytes. Mean urine specific gravity reported in this study was 1·051 for entire males (sd ±9; range 1·034 to 1·070) and 1·042 for entire females (sd ±8; range 1·026 to 1·060). Results of this study may allow clinicians to have a more accurate evaluation of the ability of those animals to concentrate urine by comparing their urine specific gravity results to those obtained from this cohort of clinically healthy animals.

Anatomia ultrassonográfica dos linfonodos abdominais de furões europeus hígidos

Nos últimos anos o furão (Mustela putorius furo) tornou-se um conhecido animal de estimação sendo observada uma população em constante crescimento no Brasil, e por conseqüência cada vez mais presente em clínicas veterinárias. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a anatomia ultrassonográfica dos linfonodos abdominais de furões-europeus hígidos. Foram utilizados 20 animais, dentre os quais nove eram machos e onze fêmeas, com idade média total de três anos. Localizaram-se em 100% dos furões os linfonodos mesentéricos, em 55% dos animais os linfonodos pancreático-duodenal e esplênico, em 20% o linfonodo gástrico e em 5% o linfonodo hepático. Conclui-se que a localização e características ultrassonográfica dos linfonodos abdominais em furões são muito similares aos linfonodos abdominais de gatos, sendo este estudo uma orientação preliminar para a localização dos linfonodos abdominais de furões hígidos.

Ferret islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP): characterization of in vitro and in vivo amyloidogenicity

Diabetes in the domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo) has previously been described and the purpose of this study was to evaluate if the ferret could serve as a model for the study of β-cell degeneration associated with formation of islet amyloid. The nucleotide and amino acid sequence of ferret islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) 1–37 was identified and the synthesized peptide was studied with regards to in vitro amyloidogenicity and potential cellular toxicity in a comparative approach to human, cat and the non-amyloidogenic rat IAPP. Ferret IAPP forms amyloid-like fibrils, but with a longer lag phase than human and cat IAPP and the aggregation process was shown to reduce cell viability of cultured β-cells, but with less potency than these two amyloidogenic counterparts. Immunohistochemistry of ferret pancreas confirmed IAPP expression in the islets of Langerhans, but no islet amyloid was found in a very limited sample size of one diabetic and five healthy ferrets. Islet amyloid has never been described in ferrets, and it is not possible to determine if it is due to lack of studies/material or to the fact that the ferret’s life span is too short to present with such pathology.

Analgesic Effect of Bupivacaine Eluting Porcine Small Intestinal Submucosa (SIS) in Ferrets Undergoing Acute Abdominal Hernia Defect Surgery

Porcine small intestinal submucosa (SIS) is used as a biological implant for abdominal wall hernia repair to facilitate wound healing and augment local tissue strength. This prospective, randomized, blinded study evaluated local pain control provided by bupivacaine adsorbed to SIS for repair of acutely created abdominal wall full thickness muscle/fascial defects in ferrets. Eighteen healthy ferrets were randomly and equally assigned to three groups: (1) SIS with bupivacaine subjected to surgery, (2) SIS with no bupivacaine subjected to surgery, and (3) anesthesia only control group. Ferrets in groups 1 and 2 were anesthetized with butorphanol and sevoflurane for the surgery. Control ferrets were anesthetized in the same fashion for the same duration without surgery. Behavior and pain were evaluated in all ferrets by behavioral observation, algometer, and palpometer measurements, and heart and respiratory rates each obtained before surgery and at various intervals for 96 h after surgery. When pain reached a predetermined threshold, buprenorphine was used as a rescue analgesic. The serum and combined tissue concentrations of bupivacaine were analyzed. Overall, the palpometer testing was better tolerated in the bupivacaine treated SIS group than by the untreated SIS group (P = 0.04). There was an observed physiologically significant difference in algometer and other palpometer readings as well as heart and respiratory rates. All ferrets in the untreated SIS group were rescued while 33% of the SIS-bupivacaine groups were rescued (P < 0.01). Peak serum concentrations of bupivacaine were in the range of 0.7 μg/mL with tissue level below detection levels and no clinical signs of toxicity were observed. Bupivacaine adsorbed to SIS provided some degree of pain relief over 2-4 days with no clinical adverse effects observed in the ferrets.