Marine Ecosystem Health Research Articles

Ability of invertebrate indices to assess ecological condition on intertidal rocky shores

The implementation of directives such as the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) has promoted the development of several tools and methods for assessing the ecological health of marine ecosystems. Within the scope of the WFD and in terms of rocky shores, several multimetric tools were developed based on the macroalgae biological quality element (BQE), in addition to those based on macroinvertebrates.The WFD requires member states to assess each BQE separately. The present work aimed to test the ability of ecological indices to distinguish sites within anthropogenic disturbance gradients caused by organic enrichment, using macroinvertebrate communities on intertidal rocky shores. Owing to the lack of more specific indices (for rocky shore), indices based on abundance, diversity and/or taxonomic composition were selected from several widely used indices in ecological studies and/or developed for soft-bottom macroinvertebrate communities.Present findings reveal several indices based on diversity and/or taxonomic composition able to distinguish sites within the disturbance gradients, showing increasing quality from the site nearest the source of organic enrichment to that farthest from it, especially indices calculated using biomass data, and in the summer season. Such results open good perspectives for the use of intertidal macroinvertebrate communities from rocky shores, and also help add the perspective of this biological quality element in the ecological quality assessment of coastal waters.

Gene Transcript Profiling in Sea Otters Post-Exxon Valdez Oil Spill: A Tool for Marine Ecosystem Health Assessment

Using a panel of genes stimulated by oil exposure in a laboratory study, we evaluated gene transcription in blood leukocytes sampled from sea otters captured from 2006–2012 in western Prince William Sound (WPWS), Alaska, 17–23 years after the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill (EVOS). We compared WPWS sea otters to reference populations (not affected by the EVOS) from the Alaska Peninsula (2009), Katmai National Park and Preserve (2009), Clam Lagoon at Adak Island (2012), Kodiak Island (2005) and captive sea otters in aquaria. Statistically, sea otter gene transcript profiles separated into three distinct clusters: Cluster 1, Kodiak and WPWS 2006–2008 (higher relative transcription); Cluster 2, Clam Lagoon and WPWS 2010–2012 (lower relative transcription); and Cluster 3, Alaska Peninsula, Katmai and captive sea otters (intermediate relative transcription). The lower transcription of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), an established biomarker for hydrocarbon exposure, in WPWS 2010–2012 compared to earlier samples from WPWS is consistent with declining hydrocarbon exposure, but the pattern of overall low levels of transcription seen in WPWS 2010–2012 could be related to other factors, such as food limitation, pathogens or injury, and may indicate an inability to mount effective responses to stressors. Decreased transcriptional response across the entire gene panel precludes the evaluation of whether or not individual sea otters show signs of exposure to lingering oil. However, related studies on sea otter demographics indicate that by 2012, the sea otter population in WPWS had recovered, which indicates diminishing oil exposure.

Parasitic infection: a buffer against ocean acidification?

Recently, there has been a concerted research effort by marine scientists to quantify the sensitivity of marine organisms to ocean acidification (OA). Empirical data generated by this research have been used to predict changes to marine ecosystem health, biodiversity and productivity that will be caused by continued acidification. These studies have also found that the effects of OA on marine organisms can be significantly modified by additional abiotic stressors (e.g. temperature or oxygen) and biotic interactions (e.g. competition or predation). To date, however, the effects of parasitic infection on the sensitivity of marine organisms to OA have been largely ignored. We show that parasitic infection significantly altered the response of a marine gastropod to simulated OA conditions by reducing the mortality of infected individuals relative to uninfected conspecifics. Without the inclusion of infection data, our analysis would not have detected the significant effect of pH on host mortality. These results strongly suggest that parasitic infection may be an important confounding factor in OA research and must be taken into consideration when assessing the response of marine species to OA.

Is meiofauna a good bioindicator of artificial reef impact?

Artificial reefs (ARs) are the most common man-made constructions adopted to prevent coastal erosion from wave actions and currents. Despite their worldwide application in coastal management and the documented chemical and physical alterations on surrounding seabeds that they may cause, few studies have been carried out on their impact upon meiofauna. The aim of this survey was to evaluate the potential effects of ARs on the seabed using various meiofaunal descriptors such as the structure of the entire assemblage and of rare taxa, the richness, the diversity indices and the Nematode:Copepod (Ne:Co) ratio. We investigated meiofaunal assemblages of some exposed areas on the Adriatic coast that are protected by ARs and subject to different levels of anthropogenic impact. This last issue was fundamental to examining possible interactions between AR presence and riverine discharges. The results of this study showed that the most efficient meiofaunal descriptors were diversity indices and the Ne:Co ratio, and suggested that the existence of ARs along with uncontrolled riverine discharges may increase anthropogenic impacts upon coastlines. This point is crucial for the conservation and monitoring of beaches because coastal management should be focused on preventing not only coastal erosion, but also possible impacts on marine ecosystem and human health.

Spatial characteristics and formation mechanisms of bottom hypoxia zone in the Bohai Sea during summer

Formation of hypoxia zone in coast seas is a critical factor influencing the health of marine ecosystem and has becoming a focus of ocean science. The Bohai Sea in northeastern China is a semi-enclosed shallow sea receiving tremendous amount of terrestrial input of nutrients and sediments from several large rivers as well as coastal municipalities and has suffered serious eutrophication in the last two decades. Seasonal hypoxia has been reported on some locations in the Bohai Sea but relative few studies have been carried out to reveal its physical and biological mechanisms.

Changes in water clarity in response to river discharges on the Great Barrier Reef continental shelf: 2002–2013

Water clarity is a key factor for the health of marine ecosystems. The Australian Great Barrier Reef (GBR) is located on a continental shelf, with >35 major seasonal rivers discharging into this 344,000 km2 tropical to subtropical ecosystem. This work investigates how river discharges affect water clarity in different zones along and across the GBR. For each day over 11 years (2002–2013) we calculated ‘photic depth’ as a proxy measure of water clarity (calibrated to be equivalent to Secchi depth), for each 1 km2 pixel from MODIS-Aqua remote sensing data. Long-term and seasonal changes in photic depth were related to the daily discharge volumes of the nearest rivers, after statistically removing the effects of waves and tides on photic depth. The relationships between photic depths and rivers differed across and along the GBR. They typically declined from the coastal to offshore zones, and were strongest in proximity to rivers in agriculturally modified catchments. In most southern inner zones, photic depth declined consistently throughout the 11-year observation period; such long-term trend was not observed offshore nor in the northern regions. Averaged across the GBR, photic depths declined to 47% of local maximum values soon after the onset of river floods, and recovery to 95% of maximum values took on average 6 months (range: 150–260 days). The river effects were strongest at latitude 14.5°–19.0°S, where river loads are high and the continental shelf is narrow. Here, even offshore zones showed a >40% seasonal decline in photic depth, and 17–24% reductions in annual mean photic depth in years with large river nutrients and sediment loads. Our methodology is based on freely available data and tools and may be applied to other shelf systems, providing valuable insights in support of ecosystem management.

Communicating about ocean health: theoretical and practical considerations.

As anthropogenic stressors threaten the health of marine ecosystems, there is a need to better understand how the public processes and responds to information about ocean health. Recent studies of public perceptions about ocean issues report high concern but limited knowledge, prompting calls for information campaigns to mobilize public support for ocean restoration policy. Drawing on the literature from communication, psychology and related social science disciplines, we consider a set of social-cognitive challenges that researchers and advocates are likely to encounter when communicating with the public about ocean health and emerging marine diseases--namely, the psychological distance at which ocean issues are construed, the unfamiliarity of aquatic systems to many members of the public and the potential for marine health issues to be interpreted through politicized schemas that encourage motivated reasoning over the dispassionate consideration of scientific evidence. We offer theory-based strategies to help public outreach efforts address these challenges and present data from a recent experiment exploring the role of message framing (emphasizing the public health or environmental consequences of marine disease) in shaping public support for environmental policy.

Overview of Integrative Assessment of Marine Systems: The Ecosystem Approach in Practice

Traditional and emerging human activities are increasingly putting pressures on marine ecosystems and impacting their ability to sustain ecological and human communities. To evaluate the health status of marine ecosystems we need a science-based, integrated Ecosystem Approach, that incorporates knowledge of ecosystem function and services provided that can be used to track how management decisions change the health of marine ecosystems. Although many methods have been developed to assess the status of single components of the ecosystem, few exist for assessing multiple ecosystem components in a holistic way. To undertake such an integrative assessment, it is necessary to understand the response of marine systems to human pressures. Hence, innovative monitoring is needed to obtain data to determine the health of large marine areas, and in an holistic way. Here we review five existing methods that address both of these needs (monitoring and assessment): the Ecosystem Health Assessment Tool; a method for the Marine Strategy Framework Directive in the Bay of Biscay; the Ocean Health Index; the Marine Biodiversity Assessment Tool; and the Nested Environmental status Assessment Tool. We have highlighted their main characteristics and analyzing their commonalities and differences, in terms of: use of the Ecosystem Approach; inclusion of multiple components in the assessment; use of reference conditions; use of integrative assessments; use of a range of values to capture the status; weighting ecosystem components when integrating; determine the uncertainty; ensure spatial and temporal comparability; use of robust monitoring approaches; and address pressures and impacts. Ultimately, for any ecosystem assessment to be effective it needs to be: transparent and repeatable and, in order to inform marine management, the results should be easy to communicate to wide audiences, including scientists, managers and policymakers.

Using expert elicitation to estimate the impacts of plastic pollution on marine wildlife

Marine litter is a growing environmental concern. With the rapid increase in global plastics production and the resulting large volume of litter that enters the marine environment, determining the consequences of this debris on marine fauna and ocean health has now become a critical environmental priority, particularly for threatened and endangered species. However, there are limited data about the impacts of debris on marine species from which to draw conclusions about the population consequences of anthropogenic debris. To address this knowledge gap, information was elicited from experts on the ecological threat (both severity and specificity) of entanglement, ingestion and chemical contamination for three major marine taxa: seabirds, sea turtles and marine mammals. The threat assessment focused on the most common types of litter that are found along the world's coastlines, based on data gathered during three decades of international coastal clean-up efforts. Fishing related gear, balloons and plastic bags were estimated to pose the greatest entanglement risk to marine fauna. In contrast, experts identified a broader suite of items of concern for ingestion, with plastic bags and plastic utensils ranked as the greatest threats. Entanglement and ingestion affected a similar range of taxa, although entanglement was rated as slightly worse because it is more likely to be lethal. Contamination was scored the lowest in terms of impact, affecting a smaller portion of the taxa and being rated as having solely non-lethal impacts. This work points towards a number of opportunities both for policy-based and consumer-driven changes in plastics use that could have demonstrable affects for a range of ecologically important taxa that serve as indicators of marine ecosystem health.

Health status of the Bilbao estuary: A review of data from a multidisciplinary approach

Estuarine and marine ecosystems are subject to different sources of stress including changes in environmental physicochemical variables (nutrients, oxygen availability, temperature, salinity, pH) or exposure to a large cocktail of environmental pollutants. In the estuary of Bilbao, despite the improvement in environmental quality due to replacement of most polluting industries and the progressive implementation of an integrated sewage treatment plan, chronic pollution by metals and hydrocarbons still remains, together with eutrophication and pollution by emerging contaminants. The Unit of Formation and Research “Protection of Ecosystem Health” was created in 2012 through the strategic aggregation of three consolidated research groups: Cell Biology in Environmental Toxicology (CBET), Phytoplankton of estuaries and coastal areas (FITEAC) and Research on marine and estuarine pelagic environment and planktonic communities (MarEsPlank). The three groups have a long tradition in studying the health of marine and estuarine ecosystems from different perspectives, focusing in the Bay of Biscay and especially in the estuary of Bilbao. In this work we review data on the health status of the Bilbao estuary using early warning tools at the cell and tissue levels, phytoplankton assemblages and zooplankton ecology. In spite of the seasonal and interannual variability recorded for some parameters, a general recovery trend was observed for the health status in the estuary of Bilbao, with sporadic critical events such as the Prestige oil spill.

Impacts of and adaptation to inter-decadal marine climate change in coastal China seas

The coastal China areas stretching from tropical to temperate zone represent major environmental and economic assets. However, knowledge of climate change and its impact in coastal seas, which is very critical for marine resource and risk-management issues, is relatively poor compared with that on land. Here, we show that the coastal China seas experienced a long-term surface warming with a rate of 0.015 °C year−1 and an obvious sea level rise along the coast, particularly along the East China Sea with a rate of more than 3.2 mm year−1 since the late 1950s. The Eurasian atmospheric circulation underwent clearly inter-decadal changes in the past decades due to the tropical ocean thermal changes including warming hiatus and conversely influenced the higher latitude coastal marine conditions through regional air–sea interaction. Marine climate variables including sea surface temperature, sea surface height, and atmospheric cyclonic circulation have formed a favourable condition for phytoplankton blooms such as harmful algae blooms (e.g. red tides) and Enteromorpha prolifera blooms (green tides). These algae blooms could strongly lower oxygen levels in the seawater and have been posing threats for the health of coastal and marine ecosystems since the late 1970s. The impacts and key risks of climate change risks in coastal China seas and the coastal zone are reviewed and analysed as follows: frequent occurrences of red tides and green tides, distribution shifts of marine species and changes in their seasonal behaviour, reduction of coastal habitat, decline of marine ecosystem services, flooding and coastal inundation, seawater intrusion, and threats to coastland community security and marine industries, etc. Furthermore, the accumulated effects of human activity, such as reclamation, sewage discharge, and overfishing, have led to an apparent increase in climate-related vulnerabilities. Adaptation issues and risk-management strategies in response to climate change are discussed and proposed as well.

Quantifying the influence of CO<sub>2</sub> seasonality on future aragonite undersaturation onset

Abstract. Ocean acidification is a predictable consequence of rising atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2), and is highly likely to impact the entire marine ecosystem – from plankton at the base of the food chain to fish at the top. Factors which are expected to be impacted include reproductive health, organism growth and species composition and distribution. Predicting when critical threshold values will be reached is crucial for projecting the future health of marine ecosystems and for marine resources planning and management. The impacts of ocean acidification will be first felt at the seasonal scale, however our understanding how seasonal variability will influence rates of future ocean acidification remains poorly constrained due to current model and data limitations. To address this issue, we first quantified the seasonal cycle of aragonite saturation state utilizing new data-based estimates of global ocean-surface dissolved inorganic carbon and alkalinity. This seasonality was then combined with earth system model projections under different emissions scenarios (representative concentration pathways; RCPs 2.6, 4.5 and 8.5) to provide new insights into future aragonite undersaturation onset. Under a high emissions scenario (RCP 8.5), our results suggest accounting for seasonality will bring forward the initial onset of month-long undersaturation by 17 ± 10 years compared to annual-mean estimates, with differences extending up to 35 ± 16 years in the North Pacific due to strong regional seasonality. This earlier onset will result in large-scale undersaturation once atmospheric CO2 reaches 496 ppm in the North Pacific and 511 ppm in the Southern Ocean, independent of emission scenario. This work suggests accounting for seasonality is critical to projecting the future impacts of ocean acidification on the marine environment.

The Foraging Ecology of the Endangered Cape Verde Shearwater, a Sentinel Species for Marine Conservation off West Africa.

Large Marine Ecosystems such as the Canary Current system off West Africa sustains high abundance of small pelagic prey, which attracts marine predators. Seabirds are top predators often used as biodiversity surrogates and sentinel species of the marine ecosystem health, thus frequently informing marine conservation planning. This study presents the first data on the spatial (GPS-loggers) and trophic (stable isotope analysis) ecology of a tropical seabird—the endangered Cape Verde shearwater Calonectris edwardsii–during both the incubation and the chick-rearing periods of two consecutive years. This information was related with marine environmental predictors (species distribution models), existent areas of conservation concern for seabirds (i.e. marine Important Bird Areas; marine IBAs) and threats to the marine environment in the West African areas heavily used by the shearwaters. There was an apparent inter-annual consistency on the spatial, foraging and trophic ecology of Cape Verde shearwater, but a strong alteration on the foraging strategies of adult breeders among breeding phases (i.e. from incubation to chick-rearing). During incubation, birds mostly targeted a discrete region off West Africa, known by its enhanced productivity profile and thus also highly exploited by international industrial fishery fleets. When chick-rearing, adults exploited the comparatively less productive tropical environment within the islands of Cape Verde, at relatively close distance from their breeding colony. The species enlarged its trophic niche and increased the trophic level of their prey from incubation to chick-rearing, likely to provision their chicks with a more diversified and better quality diet. There was a high overlap between the Cape Verde shearwaters foraging areas with those of European shearwater species that overwinter in this area and known areas of megafauna bycatch off West Africa, but very little overlap with existing Marine Important Bird Areas. Further investigation on the potential nefarious effects of fisheries on seabird communities exploiting the Canary Current system off West Africa is needed. Such negative effects could be alleviated or even dissipated if the ‘fisheries-conservation hotspots’ identified for the region, would be legislated as Marine Protected Areas.

Noise in the Sea and Its Impacts on Marine Organisms.

With the growing utilization and exploration of the ocean, anthropogenic noise increases significantly and gives rise to a new kind of pollution: noise pollution. In this review, the source and the characteristics of noise in the sea, the significance of sound to marine organisms, and the impacts of noise on marine organisms are summarized. In general, the studies about the impact of noise on marine organisms are mainly on adult fish and mammals, which account for more than 50% and 20% of all the cases reported. Studies showed that anthropogenic noise can cause auditory masking, leading to cochlear damage, changes in individual and social behavior, altered metabolisms, hampered population recruitment, and can subsequently affect the health and service functions of marine ecosystems. However, since different sampling methodologies and unstandarized measurements were used and the effects of noise on marine organisms are dependent on the characteristics of the species and noise investigated, it is difficult to compare the reported results. Moreover, the scarcity of studies carried out with other species and with larval or juvenile individuals severely constrains the present understanding of noise pollution. In addition, further studies are needed to reveal in detail the causes for the detected impacts.

The socio-economic effects of a Marine Protected Area on the ecosystem service of leisure and recreation

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are an important tool for the maintenance of marine ecosystem functionality and health and ensuring the onward flow of beneficial ecosystem services that support human well-being. Social and economic factors influence whether and how stakeholders exploit resources or cooperate to conserve them. Environmental managers are now turning from designating MPAs to monitoring their effectiveness. Combining spatial analysis with quantitative and qualitative survey methods this research shows that an MPA (Lyme Bay, SW England) has had varying effects on the delivery of the beneficial ecosystem service of leisure and recreation. In the survey years 2008–2011 dive businesses have increased their frequency of activity inside and outside the MPA and report an increase in turnover; though they perceive little or no effect of the MPA on business. Charter boat operators have seen an overall decline in the frequency of activity outside the MPA and an increase inside the MPA. They perceive that the MPA has increasingly had a positive effect on their business. Sea angling activity has declined at sites outside the MPA and increased at sites within the MPA, suggesting a redistribution of spatial activity. Diving activity has increased both inside and outside the MPA. Divers report that the MPA has influenced where they choose to dive. This corresponds to a potential increase in value of the MPA resource (represented as the proportional expenditure and associated turnover by these groups) of £2.2 million. This research demonstrates that the use of the resource has changed following designation and that MPAs can attract a greater proportion of the leisure and recreation expenditure and associated turnover to sites within the MPA boundary. Moving forward it is important to assess effects both inside and outside MPAs. Integrating high quality social science at MPA sites to track effectiveness can help to adapt and refine management strategies to reflect the needs of the stakeholders and support effective conservation.

A mesocosm study investigating the effects of hypoxia and population density on respiration and reproductive biology in the brittlestar Amphiura filiformis

ABSTRACT: Hypoxic events are increasing in frequency and duration, especially in areas susceptible to eutrophication. Such events pose a growing threat to the health and function of marine ecosystems by altering key biological and ecological processes. Of particular concern is how hypoxia impacts upon both the reproductive biology and metabolic activity of marine organisms and what these impacts mean for biodiversity and ecosystem function. Furthermore, information on the effect of population-level processes (e.g. organism density) on individuals’ biological responses to hypoxia is currently lacking, hampering predictions on population and species sensitivity to this stressor. Using a mesocosm experiment, we investigated the effects of relatively short-term hypoxia (14 d, 3.59 mg O2 l-1) and organism density (5, 9, 13, 17, and 21 ind. per aquarium, equating to 500, 900, 1300, 1700, and 2100 ind. m-2 respectively) on the aerobic metabolism and reproductive biology of a key infaunal species, the brittlestar Amphiura filiformis. While there were no observed effects of organism density, exposure to hypoxia did result in reduced metabolic rates and delayed metabolic recovery rates once normoxic (8.09 mg O2 l-1) conditions were restored. Additionally, hypoxia resulted in delayed female reproductive cell development, smaller oocyte feret diameter, and a greater number of pre-vitellogenic oocytes present within the ovaries. These disruptions to metabolism and reproductive biology during hypoxia could cause major alterations in the quantity and quality of planktonic propagules supplied by benthic species to the pelagic environment, which in turn could affect benthic community diversity in the long term, as well as bentho-pelagic coupling, if repeated hypoxic events occur.

The Mar Piccolo of Taranto: an interesting marine ecosystem for the environmental problems studies

The National Project RITMARE (la Ricerca ITaliana per il MARE-Italian Research for the sea) started from 1 January 2012. It is one of the national research programs funded by the Italian Ministry of University and Research. RITMARE is coordinated by the National Research Council (CNR) and involves an integrated effort of most of the scientific community working on marine and maritime issues. Within the project, different marine study areas of strategic importance for the Mediterranean have been identified: Among these, the coastal area of Taranto (Ionian Sea, Southern Italy) was chosen for its different industry settlements and the relative impact on the marine environment. In particular, the research has been concentrated on the Mar Piccolo of Taranto, a complex marine ecosystem model important in terms of ecological, social, and economic activities for the presence also of extensive mussel farms. The site has been selected also because the Mar Piccolo area is a characteristic "on field" laboratory suitable to investigate release and diffusion mechanisms of contaminants, evaluate chemical-ecological risks towards the marine ecosystem and human health, and suggest and test potential remediation strategies for contaminated sediments. In this context, within the project RITMARE, a task force of researchers has contributed to elaboration a functioning conceptual model with a multidisciplinary approach useful to identify anthropogenic forcings, its impacts, and solutions of environmental remediation. This paper describes in brief some of the environmental issues related to the Mar Piccolo basin.

Seasonal variation in the skin transcriptome of common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) from the northern Gulf of Mexico.

As long-lived predators that integrate exposures across multiple trophic levels, cetaceans are recognized as sentinels for the health of marine ecosystems. Their utility as sentinels requires the establishment of baseline health parameters. Because cetaceans are protected, measurements obtained with minimal disruption to free ranging animals are highly desirable. In this study we investigated the utility of skin gene expression profiling to monitor health and contaminant exposure in common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Remote integument biopsies were collected in the northern Gulf of Mexico prior to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill (May 2010) and during summer and winter for two years following oil contamination (2010-2011). A bottlenose dolphin microarray was used to characterize the skin transcriptomes of 94 individuals from three populations: Barataria Bay, Louisiana, Chandeleur Sound, Louisiana, and Mississippi Sound, Mississippi/Alabama. Skin transcriptomes did not differ significantly between populations. In contrast, season had a profound effect on gene expression, with nearly one-third of all genes on the array differing in expression between winter and the warmer seasons (moderated T-test; p<0.01, fold-change≥1.5). Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in blubber changed concurrently, reaching >two-fold higher concentrations in summer compared to winter, due to a seasonal decrease in blubber thickness and loss of stored lipid. However, global gene expression did not correlate strongly with seasonally changing contaminant concentrations, most likely because the refractory, lipid-stored metabolites are not substrates for phase I or II xenobiotic detoxification pathways. Rather, processes related to cell proliferation, motility, and differentiation dominated the differences in expression in winter and the warmer seasons. More subtle differences were seen between spring and summer (1.5% of genes differentially expressed). However, two presumed oil-exposed animals from spring presented gene expression profiles more similar to the summer animals (presumed exposed) than to other spring animals. Seasonal effects have not previously been considered in studies assessing gene expression in cetaceans, but clearly must be taken into account when applying transcriptomic analyses to investigate their contaminant exposure or health status.

Health, wealth, and education: the socioeconomic backdrop for marine conservation in the developing world

Interacting drivers and pressures in many parts of the world are greatly undermining the long-term health and wellbeing of coastal human populations and marine ecosystems. How- ever, we do not yet have a well-formed picture of the nature and extent of the human poverty of coastal communities in these areas. In this paper, we begin to fill the gap and present a multi- dimensional picture of the wellbeing of coastal communities, using nationally representative sur- vey data to examine the health, wealth, and educational status of households in over 38000 com- munities across 38 developing countries. In general, we found high levels of poverty across the 3 dimensions (health, wealth, and education) analyzed, but each dimension also showed large heterogeneity within and across countries. We found that coastal communities had statistically significant higher levels of wellbeing than non-coastal communities. Coastal children were less stunted, less poor, and more likely to live in a higher educated household when compared to non-coastal households. However, we found that across coastal communities, rural coastal com- munities had 1.5 times lower height-for-age standard deviation scores (representing high child- hood stunting rates), were 4 times more likely to be poor, and were 1.6 times more likely to have low levels of educational attainment. A deeper understanding of human wellbeing along coasts is critical for generating wider social and more long-term economic benefits with respect to coastal marine management.

PANGAS: An Interdisciplinary Ecosystem-Based Research Framework for Small-Scale Fisheries in the Northern Gulf of California

PANGAS:An Interdisciplinary Ecosystem-Based Research Framework for Small-Scale Fisheries in the Northern Gulf of California Adrian Munguía-Vega (bio), Jorge Torre (bio), Peggy Turk-Boyer (bio), Silvio Guido Marinone (bio), Miguel Fernando Lavín (bio), Tad Pfister (bio), William Shaw (bio), Gustavo Danemann (bio), Peter Raimondi (bio), Alejandro Castillo-López (bio), Ana Cinti (bio), Jennifer N. Duberstein (bio), Marcia Moreno-Báez (bio), Mario Rojo (bio), Gaspar Soria (bio), Laura Sánchez-Velasco (bio), Hem Nalini Morzaria-Luna (bio), Luis Bourillón (bio), Kirsten Rowell (bio), and Richard Cudney-Bueno (bio) This paper is dedicated to the memory of Miguel Fernando Lavín (1951–2014), a pioneer of the PANGAS initiative who dedicated his life to advance the field of oceanography in Mexico. He was a visionary who connected oceanographers, marine conservationists, and fisheries managers. Introduction Small-scale fisheries contribute about half of global fish catches, or two-thirds when considering catches destined for direct human consumption (FAO 2014). Small-scale fisheries play an important role in food security and nutrition, poverty alleviation, equitable development, and sustainable use of natural resources, providing nutritious food for local, national, and international markets. More than 90% of the world’s fishers and fish workers (those who work in pre-harvest, harvest, and post-harvest activities, including trade) are employed by small-scale endeavors that underpin local economies in coastal, lakeshore, and riparian ecosystems. This, in turn, generates multiplier economic effects in other sectors (FAO 2014). These activities may be a recurrent sideline undertaking or become especially important in times of financial difficulty. Small-scale fisheries represent a diverse and dynamic sector, often [End Page 337] characterized by seasonal migration. They are strongly anchored in local communities and reflect historic links to fishery resources and traditions. Many small-scale fishers and fish workers are self-employed and are direct food providers for their household and communities. Most small-scale fisheries lack formal assessment, and the development of the sector over the past four decades has led to overexploitation of resources in several places across the globe. Recent studies estimate unsupervised small-scale fisheries are in substantially worse condition than fisheries where stocks have been assessed (Costello et al. 2012). Furthermore, the health of marine ecosystems and associated biodiversity are a foundation for the livelihoods and well-being of small-scale fishers. Click for larger view View full resolution Figure 1. Pangas in the Gulf of California. Photo by Adrian Munguía-Vega. In 2005, the PANGAS project was created with funding from the David and Lucile Packard Foundation as part of the Foundation’s initiative to support ecosystem-based management (EBM) for sustainable coastal and marine systems in various parts of the world (mainly the Western Pacific, U.S. West Coast, and the Gulf of California, Mexico). PANGAS is an acronym in Spanish that stands for Pesca Artesanal del Norte del Golfo de California: Ambiente y Sociedad (Small-Scale Fisheries of the Northern Gulf of California: Environment and Society). “Pangas” [End Page 338] also refers to the small skiffs (6–8 m in length), made of fiberglass, with 55- to 150-horsepower outboard motors. These are versatile boats that can use multiple types of fishing gear, hold two to three fishers, and are the primary vessel used by small-scale fishers in the northern Gulf of California (NGC), México (Cudney-Bueno and Turk-Boyer 1998) (figure 1). From its inception in 2004 as a “fuzzy”—yet ambitious—idea of ultimately coupling biophysical and human processes for management of small-scale fisheries at a regional scale (the NGC), the idea quickly transitioned to the assembly of individuals who could bring a broad, multidisciplinary perspective for research and management of small-scale fisheries. PANGAS was structured as a multidisciplinary and bi-national initiative with the goal of developing and testing an interdisciplinary framework for ecosystem-based research and management of small-scale fisheries in the NGC ecosystem and increasing capacity for ecosystem-based research in the Gulf of California. PANGAS grew as a consortium of six leading academic institutions and nonprofit organizations with experience in the NGC, with the direct involvement of 50+ researchers, students, fishers, and management practitioners. Partners...