Health Care Law Research Articles

Demystifying the Black Box: A Technical Analysis of Transparency Requirements in Clinical AI Systems

This analysis examines the adequacy of Ghana's current regulatory framework in addressing AI explainability in clinical decision support systems. It evaluates existing healthcare laws, derives underlying principles, and assesses their application to AI governance. The study finds significant gaps in the current regulatory regime, including a lack of AI-specific provisions, insufficient explainability requirements, and inadequate frameworks for liability and accountability. While existing principles provide a foundation, they are insufficient to fully address the challenges posed by AI in healthcare. The analysis concludes that comprehensive regulatory development is needed, including AI-specific healthcare regulations, technical standards for explainability, and enhanced regulatory capacity. This study is significant as it provides a roadmap for developing effective AI explainability regulations in Ghana's healthcare sector. It highlights the urgent need for regulatory evolution to ensure safe, ethical, and transparent use of AI in clinical decision support, potentially serving as a model for other developing nations facing similar challenges.

Evaluating Patient Rights and Agency: An In-depth Examination of Autonomous Decision-Making in AI-Powered Telemedicine

This study examines the adequacy of regulations concerning consent and patient autonomy in AI telemedicine in Ghana. Using the IRAC (Issue, Rule, Analysis, and Conclusion) method, the research analyzes existing Ghanaian healthcare laws and regulations in the context of AI-driven telemedicine. The study finds significant gaps in the current regulatory framework, including a lack of specific provisions for informed consent in AI telemedicine, unclear guidelines on maintaining patient autonomy, and inadequate addressing of liability issues in AI-assisted healthcare. Recommendations include developing specific AI healthcare legislation, updating existing laws to incorporate AI and telemedicine considerations, establishing AI ethics committees, and implementing short-term mitigation strategies such as interpretive guidelines and enhanced disclosure protocols. The study emphasizes the need for a two-pronged approach: long-term regulatory development and immediate implementation of interim measures to protect patient rights and ensure ethical use of AI in telemedicine.

Defining Responsibility: A Framework Analysis of Error Attribution and Accountability in AI Telemedicine Services

This study examines the regulatory landscape governing liability and accountability in AI telemedicine in Ghana. Using the CREAC (Context, Rules, Explanation, Application, Conclusion) legal analytical approach, it analyzes existing Ghanaian healthcare laws and regulations in the context of AI telemedicine. The study finds that while Ghana has a comprehensive set of healthcare regulations, they are inadequately equipped to address the unique challenges posed by AI in telemedicine, particularly regarding liability determination, accountability mechanisms, and error management. Significant gaps exist in current legislation, leaving Ghana vulnerable to the risks associated with AI in healthcare. The study recommends developing AI-specific healthcare legislation, updating existing laws, establishing a national AI in healthcare ethics committee, implementing a certification system for AI in healthcare, and creating a specialized AI healthcare liability framework. These measures aim to balance innovation in AI telemedicine with patient safety and ethical healthcare delivery.

Study of Pattern of Craniofacial Injuries in Road Traffic Accident Cases Autopsied in Midnapore Medical College

Background: The objective of this study was to investigate the pattern of craniofacial injuries in victims of fatal road traffic accidents, observed through autopsies conducted at Midnapore Medical College, West Midnapore from January 2021 to December 2023. Methods: It is a retrospective, cross- sectional observational study. Data was collected by thorough analysis of the injuries documented in post-mortem reports of all the alleged road traffic accident cases where victim sustained Cranio- facial injuries within a time span of 3 years, from 1st January 2021 to 31st December, 2023. Data was analysed using Microsoft Excel. Conclusion: The study highlights the necessity of context-specific interventions to address the unique injury patterns observed in West Midnapore's road traffic accidents. Improving road infrastructure, raising traffic safety awareness, and promoting protective measures like seat belts and helmets can reduce severe craniofacial injuries. The prevalence of maxillofacial fractures underscores the face's vulnerability, with long-term physical and psychological impacts. Effective prevention strategies, such as strict traffic regulations and awareness campaigns on the dangers of distracted or impaired driving, are essential. Despite limitations, the study provides valuable insights into craniofacial injury patterns in fatal accidents, stressing the need for enhanced road safety, stronger traffic laws, and better post-accident care. Interdisciplinary collaboration among healthcare professionals, law enforcement, and policymakers is crucial for developing comprehensive strategies to manage and prevent these injuries. By examining regional injury characteristics and comparing them with other studies, this research contributes to the broader understanding of craniofacial trauma, offering significant implications for improving road safety, trauma care, and forensic practices.

Reconstruction of Law Enforcement Rule for Employers of Medical Practitioner without Practice Licenses Based on Restorative Justice

In Indonesia, current constructive law lacks clear regulation regarding the enforcement of laws against employers who hire medical practitioner without practice licenses. As a result, law enforcement often relies on general statutes such as the Penal Code or Civil Code, treating offenders similarly to criminals. This situation emphasizes the urgent need for specific rule that adhere to principles of restorative justice. This study aims to study the absences in current law enforcement rule pertaining to employers of unlicensed medical practitioner, explore these issues from a restorative justice perspective, and propose a reconstructed regulatory framework grounded in restorative justice principles. The research employs a constructivist paradigm with a descriptive-analytical approach, utilizing socio-legal methods within a qualitative research design. Data consist of primary, secondary, and tertiary legal materials gathered through literature review, observation, and interviews, and are studied qualitatively. The findings reveal that existing rule do not follow to principles of restorative justice. Enforcement lacks consistency, hindering the equitable access of the public to law enforcement, justice, and benefits. Weaknesses include the absence of specific legal provisions and insufficient knowledge among law enforcement officials regarding healthcare law, resulting in inconsistent enforcement practices. Illustration on international and national legal insights, the study proposes a reconstructed legal framework that ensures balanced protection for employers, medical practitioner, and patients, promoting dignified and high-quality healthcare services free from stigma, and showed with fairness and professionalism. Reconstructing legal norms such as Article 442 and healthcare legislation could create a balanced law enforcement regulation that upholds legal enforcement, legal utility, and societal justice perceptions.

Medical Malpractice in Otolaryngology within the United States: A LexisNexis-Based Demographic Analysis.

Otolaryngologists are at a significantly greater risk of being sued than most other physicians. To date, there is a lack of studies characterizing trends in otolaryngology malpractice claims. To assess these trends and risk variables, this study examined malpractice claims against otolaryngologists. Retrospective database review. LexisNexis Jury Verdicts and Settlements. The LexisNexis legal database was used to locate jury verdicts and settlements related to medical malpractice in otolaryngology, from 2018 to 2024. The study did not include any claims covered by the Social Security Disability Insurance, Workers' Compensation, Healthcare Law, or Criminal Law and Procedure categories. Temporal trends were evaluated, and logistic regression was used to identify independent risk factors. Out of 903 items, 79 reported malpractice cases were included (mean age 44.5; 60.3% female). The most sued subspecialty was head and neck oncology (32.5%). Negligence (93.7%) was the primary cause of action. Of cases sent to the jury, 87.7% of them resulted in a verdict in favor of the defendant. The mean plaintiff verdict payout was $7,432,508.06 and the mean identified settlement amount was $1,562,500.00. Physical injury (62.0%) was the highest type of harm. Regional analysis indicated a higher percentage of cases from New York favored the defendant (21.1% vs 13.6%; P = .034). This study highlights key trends in otolaryngology malpractice claims, emphasizing the prevalence in cases of head and neck surgery, primarily attributed to negligence. By identifying trends and risk factors, otolaryngologists can get a better understanding of the dynamics surrounding malpractice.

Practices and Effects of Child Abuse on Learner’s Academic Performance in Primary Schools

This study investigated the practices and effects of child abuse on learners’ academic performance in selected primary schools in Budaya Sub-county. The study concluded that parents ranked highest in promoting child abuse. They subject their children to both physical and psychological abuse, which consequently affects their performance at home and school. In addition, the study revealed that physically and emotionally, the abused child becomes aggressive towards fellow pupils and elders and suffers stunted physical and mental development. According to the findings, the study calls for social welfare agencies (public and private organizations) to redouble efforts in educating, counseling, and rehabilitating victims of child abuse. These efforts could encourage many victims of child abuse to continue their education or engage in other meaningful activities. Furthermore, the knowledge of both teachers and other school personnel, along with representatives from health care services, social services, and law enforcement, regarding child abuse is severely limited. Therefore, the government should educate all stakeholders about ways to reduce child abuse. Finally, the government should make and enforce strong laws to isolate the abuser from the victim, impose harsh sentences, and provide treatment services to the sexually offended victims. Keywords: Academic performance, Child abuse, Culture, Primary school, Students

Identifying Barriers to the Adoption of Digital Contact Tracing Apps in England: Semistructured Interview Study With Professionals Involved in the Pandemic Response.

The NHS (National Health Service) COVID-19 app was a digital contact tracing app (DCTA) used in England in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The aim of which was to limit the spread of COVID-19 by providing exposure alerts. At the time of the pandemic, questions were raised regarding the effectiveness and cost of the NHS COVID-19 app and whether DCTAs have a role in future pandemics. This study aims to explore key barriers to DCTAs in England during the COVID-19 pandemic. This is a qualitative study using semistructured video interviews conducted with professionals in public health, digital health, clinicians, health care law, and health executives who had an active role in the COVID-19 pandemic. These interviews aimed to explore the perspective of different experts involved in the pandemic response and gauge their opinions on the key barriers to DCTAs in England during the COVID-19 pandemic. The initial use of maximum variation sampling combined with a snowball sampling approach ensured diversity within the cohort of interviewees. Interview transcripts were then analyzed using Braun and Clarke's 6 steps for thematic analysis. Key themes that acted as barriers to DCTAs were revealed by interviewees such as privacy concerns, poor communication, technological accessibility, digital literacy, and incorrect use of the NHS COVID-19 app. Interviewees believed that some of these issues stemmed from poor governmental communication and a lack of transparency regarding how the NHS COVID-19 app worked, resulting in decreased public trust. Moreover, interviewees highlighted that a lack of social support integration within the NHS COVID-19 app and delayed app notification period also contributed to the poor adoption rates. Qualitative findings from interviews highlighted barriers to the NHS COVID-19 app, which can be applied to DCTAs more widely and highlight some important implications for the future use of DCTAS. There was no consensus among interviewees as to whether the NHS COVID-19 app was a success; however, all interviewees provided recommendations for improvements in creating and implementing DCTAs in the future.

Measles resurgence in Armenia: unmasking health system vulnerabilities and crafting comprehensive eradication strategies - a review.

Measles is an acute febrile illness associated with rashes, fever and life-threatening complications. It is a vaccine-preventable disease with the Measles Mumps Rubella(MMR) vaccine but a recent global trend unveils a resurgence of measles in various parts of the world including Armenia. Measles was declared eliminated from Armenia in 2021 before reports of local outbreaks surfaced in 2023. The WHO identified discrepancies in the vaccination coverage during COVID-19. Measles also poses a great financial burden as a public health issue worldwide. Sociocultural factors impacting measles transmission are maternal education, healthcare access, migration, vaccine hesitancy, and socioeconomic status (Table 3). Efforts to control and eradicate measles from Armenia are run by a collaborative approach of national and international health bodies such as United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), WHO, Global Vaccine Alliance (GAVI), and the Ministry of Health. Thus, the resurgence of measles can be managed through widespread patient education, innovative approaches, strengthening the healthcare system and addressing vaccine hesitancy, sociocultural barriers, and humanitarian emergencies. This review investigates the complicated dynamics of measles inside Armenia's health system in depth. A thorough examination of measles incidence and immunization patterns highlights the shift from few cases and high vaccination rates to a comeback caused by imported viruses. The causes of its recurrence have been thoroughly investigated, including reduced immunization programs and vaccine hesitancy. The research delves further into the 'One Health' idea, assessing the possibility of interspecies transmission among nonhuman primates and examining the environmental factors that influence measles transmission. Among the challenges are weaknesses within Armenia's health system as well as the possibility of interruptions from the COVID-19 outbreak. In measles vaccination status, the combination of maternal education, postnatal care, and socioeconomic variables exposes the larger drivers at work. The study concludes with a comprehensive set of public health policy recommendations covering vaccination promotion, surveillance, healthcare provider education, public awareness, international collaboration, data analysis, law enforcement, emergency preparedness, research, and coordination. The research sheds light on the tangled web of measles dynamics, health system resilience, and contextual subtleties via this multifaceted approach, inviting readers to investigate the multiple strategies required for eliminating measles in Armenia.

U.S. Antidiscrimination Law in Healthcare & Algorithmic Bias : Its Lessons for South Korean Legislation

U.S. Antidiscrimination Law in Healthcare & Algorithmic Bias : Its Lessons for South Korean Legislation

HIPAA: A Demand to Modernize Health Legislation

In the 21st-century digital age, health data privacy remains a crucial concern. This paper evaluates the effectiveness of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, known as HIPAA. More specifically, it demonstrates a need for a unified federal framework in the U.S. that aligns with General Data Protection Regulation’s protections to address modern-day cybersecurity threats better. This article argues that in an era of increased globalization, the United States should confront the task of reforming its healthcare data protection law to align with current cybersecurity risks.  We begin by examining landmark legislation across American states to reveal inconsistencies between state and federal protective rulings. Later, we uncover the reactive nature of HIPAA, in contrast to GDPR’s proactive and citizen-centric approach. Through evaluating past lawsuits related to patient protection noncompliance, this paper depicts significant differences in the purpose, coverage, and execution of data protection laws between the United States and the European Union. It highlights GDPR’s effectiveness in granting individuals greater control over their data. Furthermore, this article proposes the adoption of newfound systems for standardized risk analysis and enhanced security across healthcare providers. As healthcare becomes more accessible to the American public, the amount of data in this system increases. This nationwide surge in data underscores the critical need to assess whether privacy laws established in the 1990s remain sufficient. Therefore, updates to healthcare legislation are essential to establishing stringent patient protections in response to the significant rise in data breach incidents within the healthcare network.   

Delegation of Medical Action Authority of Doctors to Nurses in Health Services in Emergency Departments: Empirical Legal

Purpose: This study aims to analyze the implementation of the delegation of authority of medical actions of doctors to nurses in the emergency department and explore the legal responsibility of the delegation of authority of medical actions of doctors to nurses in the emergency department in Indonesia. Theoretical Fremework: Theoretically, this research is expected to contribute intellectually and academically to the enhancement of understanding of healthcare laws for healthcare practitioners, institutional leaders, and to provide a sense of security and protection in carrying out healthcare services functions to the community, especially in the provision of medical procedures at healthcare facilities. Additionally, it is expected to provide practical insights for the goverment, hospital directors, and health departments in order to improve healthcare services to the public and ensure legal protection for healthcare workers in carrying out their professional duties. Method: The type of research method used is empirical legal research. Data primarily obtained from respondents using a list of questions (questionnaire) and direct interviews with the research object. In addition to that, it is also based on legal materials that are relevant to the discussion or problem being researched and other supplementary legal materials that can provide explanations. Results: The delegation of medical action authority from doctors to nurses in healthcare services at emergency rooms is regulated in Article 290 of Law Number 17 of 2023 concerning Health. Medical and healthcare services, consisting of both mandatory delegation. The scope of work delegated through partnership must be clearly and specifically defined in writing within the authority delegation letter and adjusted according to the level of competence of the nurse. The doctor as the delegator and the nurse as the recipient of medical authority there are also responsibilities of the hospital, as well as the central and local governments, especially in meeting the national needs for medical and healthcare personnel. In handling medical dispute cases, law enforcement agencies must prioritize the mechanism of restorative justice. If no agreement is reached, the dispute is then taken over by the professional disciplinary board under the Ministry of Health to determine whether there has been any violation of professional discipline by medical and healthcare personnel. Conclusions: 1) Delegation of authority for doctor’s medical actions to nurses in health services in emergency departments in Indonesia, regulated in Law No. 17 of 2023 concerning Health Article 290, Minister of Health Regulation No. 2052 of 2011 Article 23 and Minister of Health Decree No. HK.01.07-425 of 2020 concerning Nursing Professional Standards; 2) Responsibilities by doctors, nurses, and hospitals regarding the delegation of authority for doctors’ medical actions to nurses in health services in emergency departments must be carried out by laws.

Exploring the Intersection of Medicine and Law: A Comprehensive Analysis of Medical Legal Issues

This research paper delves into the intricate relationship between medicine and law, examining various legal issues that arise in the realm of healthcare. Through a comprehensive review of relevant statutes, regulations, case law, and scholarly articles, this paper explores topics such as patient rights, medical malpractice, healthcare privacy laws, informed consent, and the regulation of medical professionals. By shedding light on these complex legal issues, this paper aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of the legal framework that governs the practice of medicine and its implications for patient care

Worldwide Trends in COVID-19-Related Attacks Against Healthcare: A Review of the Safeguarding Health in Conflict Coalition Database.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, violence targeting healthcare reportedly increased. Attacks against healthcare can severely hamper the public health response during a pandemic. Descriptive data analysis of these attacks may be helpful to develop prevention and mitigation strategies. This study aimed to investigate trends regarding COVID-19-related attacks against healthcare from January 2020 until January 2023. COVID-19-related incidents occurring between January 2020 and January 2023 were extracted from the Safeguarding Health in Conflict Coalition database and screened for eligibility. Included incidents were linked to COVID-19 health measures or were attacks directly interfering with COVID-19 healthcare, including conflict-related attacks. Data collected per incident included temporal factors; country; setting; attack and weapon type; perpetrator; motive; number of healthcare workers (HCWs) killed, injured, or kidnapped; and health facility damage. The study identified 255 COVID-19-related attacks against healthcare, with 18 HCWs killed, 147 HCWs injured, and 86 facilities damaged. The highest attack frequency was reported during the beginning of the pandemic and predominantly concerned stigma-related attacks against healthcare. Reported incidents in 2021 included attacks targeting vaccination campaigns, as well as conflict-related attacks interfering with COVID-19 healthcare. COVID-19-related attacks against healthcare occurred in heterogeneous contexts throughout the pandemic. Due to underreporting, the data presented are a minimum estimate of the actual magnitude of violence. The findings of this study emphasize the importance of public education campaigns, improved coordination between healthcare organizations and law enforcement, and the possible need to bolster the security of medical facilities and health workers.

Global Id Generation with Verification Based Medical Record Access

Global Id Generation with Verification Based Medical Record Access

A JURIDICAL REVIEW OF INFORMED CONSENT BASED ON LAW NUMBER 17 OF 2023 CONCERNING HEALTH AS A REPLACEMENT FOR LAW NUMBER 36 OF 2009

In contemporary times, with the increasing legal awareness among the general public, the aspect of legal protection has become a focal point in the healthcare legal framework in Indonesia. The Law Number 17 of 2023 concerning Health, replacing Law Number 36 of 2009, illustrates significant changes in the healthcare legal structure in Indonesia. One of the primaries focuses in the implementation of this law is informed consent, which serves as a legal protection tool for patients. Therefore, this study aims to explore the regulation of informed consent in Law Number 17 of 2023 and its implementation among healthcare professionals or facilities. This research employs a normative juridical analysis method by examining the document of the Republic of Indonesia Law Number 17 of 2023 concerning Health, which replaces Law Number 36 of 2009 concerning Health. Legal reviews are conducted by referring to various legal sources and expert opinions. The research findings indicate that Law Number 17 of 2023 establishes a stronger foundation compared to the previous law for the implementation of informed consent. Informed consent is emphasized as both a medical duty and a patient's right, with an emphasis on providing comprehensive information. These changes reflect responses to the unequal access to healthcare services and the need to strengthen the national healthcare system, particularly in the context of emergencies, extraordinary events, or outbreaks. The study notes that there is still a need for adaptation and thorough understanding from healthcare professionals and facilities to maintain a balance between patient rights and the public health interest. Further issues to be addressed include aspects of informed consent that are not elaborated in detail in this new law, such as medical expansion procedures and decisions regarding life-sustaining treatment cessation or postponement. Keywords: Healthcare Law; Informed Consent; Legal protection.

"I felt like a freak when I would go to the doctor": Investigating healthcare experiences across the lifespan among older LGBT and transgender/gender diverse adults.

In the past several decades, the United States has enacted civil rights legislation protecting lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) populations from discrimination, including enacting proactive healthcare laws such as the Affordable Care Act. However, given today's divisive politics, LGBTQ people's access to appropriate and respectful health care is precarious. This study explored the disconnections from and connections to health care and the respective health effects among two self-identified groups: i) older LGBT adults and ii) transgender and gender-diverse (TG/GD) adults. Using a life course perspective, qualitative data from 17 older LGBT and TG/GD participants were analyzed. Thematic and content analyses indicated that despite progress made, discrimination and prejudice in obtaining health care persist, particularly among TG/GD people of color. The results highlight the ongoing challenges LGBTQ populations face as they risk being denied care by healthcare providers and disconnected from the healthcare system.

DELEGATION OF MEDICAL ACTION AUTHORITY OF DOCTORS TO NURSES IN HEALTH SERVICES IN EMERGENCY DEPARTMENTS: EMPIRICAL LEGAL

Purpose: This study aims to analyze the implementation of the delegation of authority of medical actions of doctors to nurses in the emergency department and explore the legal responsibility of the delegation of authority of medical actions of doctors to nurses in the emergency department in Indonesia. Theoretical Fremework: Theoretically, this research is expected to contribute intellectually and academically to the enhancement of understanding of healthcare laws for healthcare practitioners, institutional leaders, and to provide a sense of security and protection in carrying out healthcare services functions to the community, especially in the provision of medical procedures at healthcare facilities. Additionally, it is expected to provide practical insights for the goverment, hospital directors, and health departments in order to improve healthcare services to the public and ensure legal protection for healthcare workers in carrying out their professional duties. Method: The type of research method used is empirical legal research. Data primarily obtained from respondents using a list of questions (questionnaire) and direct interviews with the research object. In addition to that, it is also based on legal materials that are relevant to the discussion or problem being researched and other supplementary legal materials that can provide explanations. Results: The delegation of medical action authority from doctors to nurses in healthcare services at emergency rooms is regulated in Article 290 of Law Number 17 of 2023 concerning Health. Medical and healthcare services, consisting of both mandatory delegation. The scope of work delegated through partnership must be clearly and specifically defined in writing within the authority delegation letter and adjusted according to the level of competence of the nurse. The doctor as the delegator and the nurse as the recipient of medical authority there are also responsibilities of the hospital, as well as the central and local governments, especially in meeting the national needs for medical and healthcare personnel. In handling medical dispute cases, law enforcement agencies must prioritize the mechanism of restorative justice. If no agreement is reached, the dispute is then taken over by the professional disciplinary board under the Ministry of Health to determine whether there has been any violation of professional discipline by medical and healthcare personnel. Conclusions: 1) Delegation of authority for doctor’s medical actions to nurses in health services in emergency departments in Indonesia, regulated in Law No. 17 of 2023 concerning Health Article 290, Minister of Health Regulation No. 2052 of 2011 Article 23 and Minister of Health Decree No. HK.01.07-425 of 2020 concerning Nursing Professional Standards; 2) Responsibilities by doctors, nurses, and hospitals regarding the delegation of authority for doctors’ medical actions to nurses in health services in emergency departments must be carried out by laws.

Searching the Reins and Hearts: Conversion Practices Reforms in Australia

Conversion practices seek to change or suppress a person’s sexual orientation or gender identity. There is no scientific evidence to support the efficacy of these practices, and considerable evidence that they can cause serious physical, mental and social harm. Despite this, conversion practices have taken and continue to take place across Australia. Recently, Queensland, the Australian Capital Territory and Victoria statutorily proscribed conversion practices, and almost all other States and Territories have committed to reforming their laws. This article analyses recent and proposed law reform models, and considers the best-practice regulatory approach to reducing the incidence of conversion practices and their risks to individuals and the community. We argue for a dual, non-carceral approach that targets conversion practices as a form of pseudo-medical malpractice under existing healthcare laws, and the promotion of the beliefs underlying the practices as a form of discriminatory incitement under anti-discrimination or human rights laws.

Intellectual Property and Health Technological Innovations at the time of the Pandemic

Abstract Technological innovations at the time of the pandemic and post pandemic is the focus of this paper which examines the relationship between intellectual property (IP), artificial intelligence (AI) and the healthcare sector. Research in this area includes the rapidly growing artificial intelligence industries in the healthcare sector and the impact of intellectual property protection on emerging technologies. Taking an interdisciplinary and diverse perspective, this paper enriches the evolving scope of ethical discourse literature by focusing on intellectual property assets that use AI and regulation that shape the healthcare sector. Considering the gap between law and development theory and practice, this paper bridges academic knowledge in unpacking ethical and governance issues in the intellectual property industry, healthcare law and emerging technologies. Unpacking these issues is important in the law and development context as ethical issues that arise from emerging technologies using AI systems and the responses from policymakers in governing their developments create long-term implications to individuals and populations. Governance responses often vary according to the local contexts, and are dependent on the unique socio-cultural structures, institutional organisations and legal frameworks.