Control Of Healthcare-associated Infections Research Articles

IMPORTÂNCIA DA CULTURA DE VIGILÂNCIA NO CONTROLE E PREVENÇÃO DAS IRAS: UMA REVISÃO BIBLIOGRÁFICA

Introduction: Healthcare-Associated Infections (HAIs) are infections acquired during hospital care, which may occur during hospitalization or after discharge. Factors such as age, comorbidities, and inadequate procedures increase the risk of infection. Active surveillance is essential to minimize the consequences of this issue and ensure the safety of both patients and healthcare professionals. In Brazil, this control is carried out through the Healthcare-Associated Infections Control Program (PCIRAS), in an effort to monitor the technological evolution and scientific evidence of healthcare practices. Objective: To analyze the importance of a surveillance culture in the prevention and control of HAI, aiming at improving the quality of health. Methodology: This is a literature review, referring to the importance of surveillance cultures in the control and prevention of HAI. Articles indexed in Google Scholar and in the Scientific Electronic Library Online (SciELO), Nature and Science Direct databases were used, in addition to dissertations/thesis and specialized literary works on the subject. Conclusion: With this study it is possible to observe not only the consequences and the high incidence of HAI in public health, but also the growing increase in the rate of multidrug-resistant microorganisms in the hospital environment, which shows the need for preventive measures to reduce this incidence, such as, for example, the surveillance culture.

Optimizing Ultrasound Probe Disinfection for Healthcare-Associated Infection Control: A Comparative Analysis of Disinfectant Efficacy

Optimizing Ultrasound Probe Disinfection for Healthcare-Associated Infection Control: A Comparative Analysis of Disinfectant Efficacy

Impact of artificial intelligence on healthcare-associated infection control: a systematic review

Abstract Background Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) represent a significant public health concern, correlating with increased morbidity, mortality rates and healthcare expenditures. While artificial intelligence (AI) systems offer transformative potential in enhancing HAIs detection and control practices, the actual performance effectiveness of these systems remains uncertain. This systematic review updates a previously published study from 2020 and evaluates the performance of AI-based tools for surveillance, detection, and control of HAIs. Methods PRISMA 2020 guidelines were applied. The study protocol has been registered in PROSPERO (ID: CRD42024513145). PubMed, Embase, Scopus and Web of Science were searched for experimental and observational studies assessing the performance of AI-based tools to detect and control HAIs, published in English. Results From 8,701 articles initially identified, 4,212 records were removed due to duplication. Out of 4,489 papers screened, 147 were included. Studies reported performance measures including sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values, area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, accuracy, precision, F1 score. Significant heterogeneity was found in the types of technology, infections targeted, health care settings and data sources between studies. Conclusions The increase in published evidence since the previous review reflects the growing interest and use of new technologies such as Large Language Models, showing promising performance in surveillance, early diagnosis and prediction of HAIs. However, the observed heterogeneity in study designs, targeted infections, healthcare settings, and data sources underscores the need for standardised methodologies and robust validation processes to ensure the reliability and comparability of results across different studies. Key messages • The use of AI-based tools has the potential to enhance surveillance, detection, and control of healthcare-associated infections, offering a transformative impact on healthcare systems. • Standardised methodologies and validation processes are needed to ensure comparable results across studies and to maximise the real-world impact of AI tools in HAI surveillance and control efforts.

Multidrug-resistant bacteria in healthcare-associated infections among pediatric patients in Lima, Peru: a call for antibiotic stewardship programs

Abstract Background Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) in children contribute to elevated morbidity and mortality rates. While the surveillance of antibiotic-resistant bacteria involved in HAIs is important, there is limited data available in Latin America. The present study aimed to evaluate the antibiotic resistance levels in bacteria isolated from hospitalized patients with HAIs in a pediatric referral center in Lima – Peru. Methods Surveillance data of HAIs from November 2021 to June 2023 among pediatric patients at Instituto Nacional de Salud del Niño San Borja was prospectively collected and reviewed. The dataset included comprehensive information on the clinical and epidemiological characteristics of patients, bacteria isolation sites and identification, as well as resistance profiles to 13 antibiotics. HAIs included were central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSI), catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTI) and ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP). Results We included 143 bacterial isolates from pediatric patients hospitalized with HAIs, of which 53.85% were male (n=77). The median age of the patients was 7 months (IQR: 2 -36). A total of 44.76% (n=64) had congenital diseases and 20.28% (n=29) had cancer. Most of the isolates were collected from pediatric Intensive Care Unit (n=104, 72.73%). The median time from the hospital admission to the appearance of HAIs was 17 days (IQR: 7-28). The most frequent isolates were Gram negative bacteria: Klebsiella pneumoniae (n=33), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (n=34) and Escherichia coli (n=24). Among Gram positive bacteria, Staphylococcus epidermidis (n=5) and Staphylococcus aureus (n=5) were the most frequent species. Regarding the site of isolation, the primary etiological agent in CLABSI was K. pneumoniae (n=18); in CAUTI, E. coli (n=13) and in VAP P. aeruginosa (n=9). Multidrug-resistant (MDR) isolates were identified, mainly among K. pneumoniae (62.50%), E. coli (54.55%), and P. aeruginosa (26.74%). Difficult-to-treat resistance was only present in 2.94% of P. aeruginosa isolates. Overall resistance to piperacillin-tazobactam was below 16%. Resistance to cephalosporins was higher than 40% for K. pneumoniae and E. coli isolates, with frequencies exceeding 60% for cefuroxime, ceftazidime, ceftriaxone, cefepime and cefoperazone/sulbactam. E. coli and K. pneumoniae resistance to carbapenems was below than 10%; however, P. aeruginosa resistant isolates were identified in 38.24% and 39.39% for meropenem and imipenem, respectively. Ciprofloxacin resistance was frequent among E. coli (70%) and K. pneumoniae (60.87%), whereas only 26.67% of P. aeruginosa. Amikacin resistance was detected in K. pneumoniae and P. aeruginosa only, with a frequency of 23.08% and 20%, respectively. Conclusion Alarming levels of antibiotic-resistant bacteria were found in HAIs among pediatric patients. Our results highlight the need of supporting initiatives for HAIs control, developing institutional guidelines for prevention and strengthening antibiotic stewardship in pediatric patients. Table 1: Antibiotic resistance profiles of the main microorganisms of healthcare-associated infections (November 2021 – June 2023)

Healthcare-associated infections in Japanese hospitals: results from a large-scale multicenter point-prevalence survey in Aichi, 2020.

Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) pose significant challenges to healthcare systems worldwide. Epidemiological data are essential for effective HAI control; however, comprehensive information on HAIs in Japanese hospitals is limited. This study aimed to provide an overview of HAIs in Japanese hospitals. A multicenter point-prevalence survey (PPS) was conducted in 27 hospitals across the Aichi Prefecture between February and July 2020. This study encompassed diverse hospital types, including community, university, and specialized hospitals. Information on the demographic data of the patients, underlying conditions, devices, HAIs, and causative organisms was collected. A total of 10,199 patients (male: 5,460) were included in this study. The median age of the patients was 73 (interquartile range [IQR]: 56-82) years, and the median length of hospital stay was 10 (IQR: 4-22) days. HAIs were present in 6.6% of patients, with pneumonia (1.83%), urinary tract infection (1.09%), and surgical site infection (SSI) (0.87%) being the most common. The prevalence of device-associated HAIs was 0.91%. Staphylococcus aureus (17.3%), Escherichia coli (17.1%), and Klebsiella pneumoniae (7.2%) were the primary pathogens in 433 organisms; 29.6% of the Enterobacterales identified showed resistance to third-generation cephalosporins. Pneumonia was the most prevalent HAI in small-to-large hospitals (1.69%-2.34%) and SSI, in extra-large hospitals (over 800 beds, 1.37%). This study offers vital insights into the epidemiology of HAIs in hospitals in Japan. These findings underscore the need for national-level PPSs to capture broader epidemiological trends, particularly regarding healthcare challenges post-COVID-19.

Guidelines for diagnosis,treatment and prevention of clostridium difficile infection in China(2024)

Clostridium difficile infection(CDI) is an intestinal infection caused by Clostridium difficile,characterized by clinical symptoms such as fever,abdominal pain,watery diarrhea,and loose stools. Mild cases present with diarrhea,while severe cases can progress to pseudomembranous colitis,often accompany by complications such as toxic megacolon,intestinal perforation,and septic shock. CDI is a significant cause of complications and mortality,especially among elderly patients,and is one of the most common hospital-acquired infections. The purpose of this guideline is to provide guidance on the diagnosis,treatment,and prevention of CDI,covering a total of 20 clinical questions across three domains: diagnosis,treatment,and prevention. The guideline was developed by a collaborative effort of a guideline expert group and a guideline working group. The guideline expert group consists of 37 clinical experts in 18 specialties related to the diagnosis and treatment of CDI and healthcare associated infection control. This guideline was developed using the internationally recognized GRADE method. It includes evidence evaluation and recommendation grading. It categorizes the quality of evidence into four levels: high,medium,low and very low. When formulating recommendations,it considers factors such as the balance of benefits and harms of intervention,quality of evidence,values and preferences,as well as cost and resource consumption. The recommendations are classified into strong and weak recommendations(conditional recommendations). The target audience of this guideline includes Chinese doctors and patients.

Healthcare-Associated Infections: Pre- and Post-pandemic Microbiological Profile and Antibiotic Resistance.

In recent years, healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) have been a priority topic for global institutions such as the World Health Organization because, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the role of HAIs as co-morbidity in infected patients was evident. HAIs can cause disability and mortality and lead to excessive healthcare costs. This work aims to calculate the prevalence of HAIs from 2019 to 2023 to determine their microbiological profile and antibiotic resistance. A cross-sectional design was used for this study. To describe the population, univariate analysis, measures of central tendency, frequencies, and proportions were used. The present study included 3,936 HAI notifications, which showed a significant decrease in their number during the COVID-19 pandemic, especially in 2020. In 2021 and 2022, the numbers increased rapidly to around 30%. The most prevalent HAI type was ventilator-associated pneumonia, which had the highest prevalence in 2020. Regarding microorganism isolation, percentages increased after 2020 from 46% to 67%, with Acinetobacter baumannniibeingthe most frequent during and after pandemics. The microbiological profile showed multidrug resistance in several microorganisms. HAIs are a global health concern. The number of cases has been increasing since the COVID-19 pandemic with regard to the multidrug-resistant microorganism. HAIs have an important impact on the quality of life, morbidity, mortality, and financial concerns for health services. Global strategies should be adapted for different regions, since the panaroma in developed countries allows for programs to be established for the prevention and control of HAIs in a better way than in low-income countries that lack adequate infrastructure and resources.

Current challenges in teaching healthcare-associated infections prevention and control in nursing education in Vietnam and Cambodia: a qualitative study.

Background: There is an insufficient understanding of factors that impede nursing students' learning of healthcare-associated infection prevention and control in developing countries. This study aimed to explore current challenges in healthcare-associated infection control and prevention education in the nursing curriculum in two Vietnamese and two Cambodian universities. Methods: Exploratory research was conducted through consultation of education programs and a qualitative study design utilizing interviews and focus group discussions. Data collection was conducted through interviews with university board members and focus group discussions with lecturers and tutors. The data were analyzed by using content analysis methods. Results: The research results indicated that there were three generic themes of challenges in teaching HAIs-PC in nursing education in Vietnam and Cambodia. They were Implementation of healthcare associated infections prevention and control education into nursing curriculum, Positive aspects fostering healthcare associated infections prevention and control learning, Negative aspects hindering healthcare associated infections prevention and control learning. Conclusions: The study results provided evidence of challenges in healthcare associated infections prevention and control education in some Asia higher education institutions. To improve professional safety, universities should pay more attention to developing appropriate teaching methods for healthcare-associated infections prevention and control education to improve students' practice outcomes.

Hospital environment microbiome

The aim of the review is to give a brief description of the biodiversity and structure of the hospital environment microbiome based on molecular genetic research methods. Until a certain time, studies of the hospital environment microbiota for the purposes of epidemiological surveillance and control of healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) were based on routine microbiological identification of clinically relevant bacterial taxa. Discovery of DNA, the development of sequencing technologies, PCR and cloning techniques enabled the investigation of microbial communities using cultivation-independent, DNA and RNA-based approaches. At the current level of knowledge, the hospital environment can be considered as a superorganism with its own microbiome. Multiomic technologies, including meta-transcriptomic, meta-proteomic and metabolomic approaches, provide detailed information about microbial activity in the environment. Now it has been established that there is a stable core of the hospital microbiome where the vast majority of microorganisms are necessary for the functioning of the hospital ecosystem and are not classified as human pathogens. The hospital microbiome has a homogeneous structure composed by a massive dominance of a few taxa and microbial network with low connectivity forming a clustered topology. A keystone species is a taxon whose importance for maintaining community structure is relatively higher than others and its identification is of paramount importance. Due to the lack of knowledge of the hospital environment microbiome by molecular genetic technologies, there is no single shared point of view on the microbial diversity in different healthcare facilities. But there is no doubt that molecular genetic technologies will shed light on the evolution of hospital strains and determine which indicators are the most informative for monitoring and prognosis of HAIs.

16S rRNA amplicon sequencing and antimicrobial resistance profile of intensive care units environment in 41 Brazilian hospitals.

Infections acquired during healthcare setting stay pose significant public health threats. These infections are known as Healthcare-Associated Infections (HAI), mostly caused by pathogenic bacteria, which exhibit a wide range of antimicrobial resistance. Currently, there is no knowledge about the global cleaning process of hospitals and the bacterial diversity found in ICUs of Brazilian hospitals contributing to HAI. Characterize the microbiome and common antimicrobial resistance genes present in high-touch Intensive Care Unit (ICU) surfaces, and to identify the potential contamination of the sanitizers/processes used to clean hospital surfaces. In this national, multicenter, observational, and prospective cohort, bacterial profiles and several antimicrobial resistance genes from 41 hospitals across 16 Brazilian states were evaluated. Using high-throughput 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing and real-time PCR, the bacterial abundance and resistance genes presence were analyzed in both ICU environments and cleaning products. We identified a wide diversity of microbial populations with a recurring presence of HAI-related bacteria among most of the hospitals. The median bacterial positivity rate in surface samples was high (88.24%), varying from 21.62 to 100% in different hospitals. Hospitals with the highest bacterial load in samples were also the ones with highest HAI-related abundances. Streptococcus spp., Corynebacterium spp., Staphylococcus spp., Bacillus spp., Acinetobacter spp., and bacteria from the Flavobacteriaceae family were the microorganisms most found across all hospitals. Despite each hospital particularities in bacterial composition, clustering profiles were found for surfaces and locations in the ICU. Antimicrobial resistance genes mecA, bla KPC-like, bla NDM-like, and bla OXA-23-like were the most frequently detected in surface samples. A wide variety of sanitizers were collected, with 19 different active principles in-use, and 21% of the solutions collected showed viable bacterial growth with antimicrobial resistance genes detected. This study demonstrated a diverse and spread pattern of bacteria and antimicrobial resistance genes covering a large part of the national territory in ICU surface samples and in sanitizers solutions. This data should contribute to the adoption of surveillance programs to improve HAI control strategies and demonstrate that large-scale epidemiology studies must be performed to further understand the implications of bacterial contamination in hospital surfaces and sanitizer solutions.

Role of Clinical Microbiology Laboratory in Healthcare-associated Infection Prevention and Control

Role of Clinical Microbiology Laboratory in Healthcare-associated Infection Prevention and Control

A Label-Free Optical Flow Cytometry Based-Method for Rapid Assay of Disinfectants' Bactericidal Activity.

Selecting the appropriate disinfectant to control and prevent healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) is a challenging task for environmental health experts due to the large number of available disinfectant products. This study aimed to develop a label-free flow cytometry (FCM) method for the rapid evaluation of bactericidal activity and to compare its efficacy with that of standard qualitative/quantitative suspension tests. The bactericidal efficiency of eight commercial disinfectants containing quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) was evaluated against four strains recommended by EN 13727 (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus hirae) and four multidrug-resistant pathogens. The proposed FCM protocol measures changes in scattered light and counts following disinfectant exposure, neutralization, and culture steps. Unlike other available FCM-based methods, this approach does not rely on autofluorescence measurements, impedance cytometry, or fluorescent dyes. The FCM scattered light signals revealed both decreased count rates and morphological changes after treatment with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and higher concentrations for all tested bacteria. The results from the FCM measurements showed excellent correlation with those from standard assays, providing a rapid tool for monitoring the susceptibility profile of clinical, multidrug-resistant pathogens to chemical disinfectants, which could support infection prevention and control procedures for healthcare environments. This label-free FCM protocol offers a novel and rapid tool for environmental health experts, aiding in the optimization of disinfectant selection for the prevention and control of HAIs.

Epidemiological and Microbiological Characteristics of Nosocomial Infections in the Neurosurgery Department

Introduction. Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) in neurosurgery departments are a serious problem, especially for patients in severe clinical condition. A high risk of HAIs is associated with medical interventions in the CNS, and brain injury itself is a particularly strong predictor of nosocomial infections. Aim. The aim of the study was to perform an epidemiological and microbiological analysis of the incidence of infections in the neurosurgery department. Material and Methods. Retrospective analysis was performed on the records of patients hospitalised in the neurosurgery department between 2019 and 2022. There were 4,267 patients, among whom 114 infections were found in 69 patients. The collected material was analysed statistically. Results. HAIs accounted for 1.6% of all hospitalised patients, occurring more frequently in men (42%). The infection incidence rate in 2019 was 3.7 and in 2022 — 2.5. The most commonly isolated pathogens were Enterobacterales. The most frequent diagnoses were respiratory tract infections (PN) — 24.56%, followed by bloodstream infections (BSI) — 20.18%, and surgical site infections (SSI) — 17% The percentage of PN (p=028) and SSI (p=0.027) infections decreased from year to year, and increased in BSI (p=0.022); statistically significant data. The mean for GCS differed significantly among patients with gastrointestinal infection (GI), p=0.021, and was highly statistically significant for BSI and PN, p<0.001. The mean for NRS 2002 differed significantly among patients with and without infection, p<0.05. Conclusions. Nosocomial infections occur in a small percentage of hospitalised patients, some of whom have more than one nosocomial infection. There is a need for epidemiological surveillance and collaboration between infection control specialists and neurosurgery staff to optimise HAI prevention and control. (JNNN 2024;13(2):69–77)

Nursing Students' Perceptions of a Novel Education Approach to Prevention and Control of Healthcare-Associated Infections: Insights from PrevInf Pilot Study.

Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) pose a significant global threat, particularly in developing regions such as Southeast Asia. International bodies emphasize the role of formal undergraduate training in the prevention and control of HAIs. To address this, we aimed to explore the perceptions of Southeast Asian nursing students regarding a novel educational approach developed by a European-Southeast Asian project consortium. A pilot study was conducted in four nursing higher education institutions from Cambodia and Vietnam. First, local nursing educators conducted a 2 h classroom-based training session. Then, students were invited to participate for the first time in one of twelve evidence-based simulation scenarios developed by the research team, covering a range of nursing care situations related to the prevention and control of HAIs. After attending both components, students were asked to complete a paper-based questionnaire and rate their agreement with a set of statements on the appropriateness and meaningfulness of both components. A total of 430 nursing students enrolled in the pilot study; 77.4% were female, with an average age of 19.8 years. The PrevInf educational intervention received positive feedback from participating students across settings, with strong agreement on the importance of proactiveness in competency development (M = 5.9, SD = 1.4). Notable differences between Cambodian and Vietnamese students were observed in terms of their receptiveness to the pre-selected teaching materials (p = 0.001) and strategies (p = 0.01) used by the nursing educators during their experience with the simulation scenarios. The PrevInf educational intervention shows promise in engaging Southeast Asian nursing students and fostering a deeper understanding of the prevention and control of HAIs. Further studies are warranted to refine the learning content and standardize the pedagogical strategies used by nursing educators across settings. This study was not registered.

Simulation as a teaching method for nursing education in healthcare-associated infection prevention and control in Asian countries: a qualitative study

Simulation as a teaching method for nursing education in healthcare-associated infection prevention and control in Asian countries: a qualitative study

Nursing students’ learning experience with healthcare-associated infection prevention and control (HAI-PC) in Asian countries: an exploratory qualitative study

Nursing students’ learning experience with healthcare-associated infection prevention and control (HAI-PC) in Asian countries: an exploratory qualitative study

Significance of Ongoing Training and Professional Development in Optimizing Healthcare-associated Infection Prevention and Control.

The employees who work in infection prevention and control (IPC) are very important in the field of health-care because they are committed to protecting patients, staff, and visitors from the risk of acquiring infections while in the hospital. The complexity of infection control in hospitals is alwaysgrowing in tandem with the rapid developments that are being made in medical technology andpractices. IPC personnel are required to maintain vigilance and continually improve their monitoringof the entire health-care process due to the ongoing development of IPC guidelines and regulations, the fluctuating infection risks, and the emergence of new infectious diseases. As a result, individuals involved in the prevention and control of infections in health-care settings absolutely need to participate in continual training and professional development. This reviewemphasizes the need of relevant professionals to engage in ongoing training and professional development to maintain their skills in the area of healthcare-associated infection control and prevention. Personnel working in IPC may more effectively react to newly discovered health risks andmake certain that hospital infection (HI) management gets the appropriate attention if they have atimely and in-depth awareness of best practices. They are better able to maintain their composure, react correctly, and deliver the most effective infection control and prevention techniques for the health-care system, all while increasing awareness about the significance of effective HI management.

Epidemiology and Risk Factors of Nosocomial Infection in Hospitalized Children and Adults: A Review

Nosocomial infections (NI) or healthcare-associated infections (HAI) are infections not present at the time of admission to a hospital and manifest 48 hours after hospital admission. The specific factors contributing to the risk of infection during hospitalization remain unclear. Nosocomial infections are a growing public health threat that increases patient morbidity and mortality. Nosocomial infections (NIs) could lead to considerably longer length of the hospital stays and higher costs. Besides, the unreasonable use of antibiotics could lead to development resistance to different antibiotics and create limited therapeutic options, increased risks of treatment failure and poor patient management. These infections are a serious public health problem affecting both developed and developing countries. This study aimed to investigate the current status and changing trend of NI in various parts of the world, to provide a reference for the prevention and control of healthcare-associated infections.

Harnessing of Artificial Intelligence for the Diagnosis and Prevention of Hospital-Acquired Infections: A Systematic Review.

Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) are the most common adverse events in healthcare and constitute a major global public health concern. Surveillance represents the foundation for the effective prevention and control of HAIs, yet conventional surveillance is costly and labor intensive. Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) have the potential to support the development of HAI surveillance algorithms for the understanding of HAI risk factors, the improvement of patient risk stratification as well as the prediction and timely detection and prevention of infections. AI-supported systems have so far been explored for clinical laboratory testing and imaging diagnosis, antimicrobial resistance profiling, antibiotic discovery and prediction-based clinical decision support tools in terms of HAIs. This review aims to provide a comprehensive summary of the current literature on AI applications in the field of HAIs and discuss the future potentials of this emerging technology in infection practice. Following the PRISMA guidelines, this study examined the articles in databases including PubMed and Scopus until November 2023, which were screened based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, resulting in 162 included articles. By elucidating the advancements in the field, we aim to highlight the potential applications of AI in the field, report related issues and shortcomings and discuss the future directions.

Innovative Techniques for Infection Control and Surveillance in Hospital Settings and Long-Term Care Facilities: A Scoping Review.

Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) pose significant challenges in healthcare systems, with preventable surveillance playing a crucial role. Traditional surveillance, although effective, is resource-intensive. The development of new technologies, such as artificial intelligence (AI), can support traditional surveillance in analysing an increasing amount of health data or meeting patient needs. We conducted a scoping review, following the PRISMA-ScR guideline, searching for studies of new digital technologies applied to the surveillance, control, and prevention of HAIs in hospitals and LTCFs published from 2018 to 4 November 2023. The literature search yielded 1292 articles. After title/abstract screening and full-text screening, 43 articles were included. The mean study duration was 43.7 months. Surgical site infections (SSIs) were the most-investigated HAI and machine learning was the most-applied technology. Three main themes emerged from the thematic analysis: patient empowerment, workload reduction and cost reduction, and improved sensitivity and personalization. Comparative analysis between new technologies and traditional methods showed different population types, with machine learning methods examining larger populations for AI algorithm training. While digital tools show promise in HAI surveillance, especially for SSIs, challenges persist in resource distribution and interdisciplinary integration in healthcare settings, highlighting the need for ongoing development and implementation strategies.