Causes Of Child Labor Research Articles

Right to Education: Significance of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) to Reach Out to Browbeaten Sections in India

It is undisputed that most of the enrollment growth in the coming several decades will be in developing countries and India will contribute a significant proportion of that expansion.India by enacting “Right to Education Act, 2009” has set out on a go-getting path to provide free and compulsory education to all children in the 6 to 14 age group. As a result the number of students enrolled in elementary schools in far flung villages would definitely see a colossal jump. Challenges of funding, availability of qualified teachers, and building a sustainable academic culture and school infrastructure are significant and real.The primary aim of the paper is to delve into the various revolutionary aspects of ICT in Education in reaching out to the browbeaten sections in India. Providing access to the free education for the children of browbeaten people like tribals, lower castes, and dalits is a complex issue in India wherein the fragmentation in the society along religious, ethnic and linguistic lines is entrenched. In addition, rampant poverty which is the root cause of child labor leaves no time for the affected children to undertake formal schooling.India has always been an interesting and tractable case study for the actual and potential impact of constitutionalizing the right to education. In a nutshell the enrollment rate in rural areas nationwide was only 71%, with a gender disparity of 0.84, meaning a 16% lower rate for girls. In some states the levels are considerably lower. In Bihar only 59% are enrolled and in Rajasthan the rate is 61% with a gender disparity of 46% for girls.Henceforth, in this paper we review various facets of and challenges in providing access to universal elementary education for the children from socially weaker sections in India. The paper also studies social divisions in India which are considered as a primary reason for creating education hindrance even now. The paper gives a critical view on how people in rural areas are still away from their basic right of education and even today the gap between poor and rich is widening by each passing day, since unfortunately education is believed to be a game of riches. The paper delves into various aspects of this ambitious aim and suggests measures for mitigating the risks and pitfall in India’s march towards achievement of 100% literacy of over 1 billion people. We also explore the ways in which the strengths of ICT can be leveraged in achievement of the goal.

Right to Education: Effective Use of ICT for Reaching Out to Socially and Economically Weaker Sections in India

Most of the enrollment growth in the coming several decades will be in developing countries and India will contribute a significant proportion of that expansion. India by enacting “Right to Education Act, 2009” has set out on an ambitious path to provide free and compulsory education to all children in the 6 to 14 age group. As a result the number of students enrolled in elementary schools in far flung villages would definitely see a quantum jump. Challenges of funding, availability of qualified teachers, and building a sustainable academic culture and school infrastructure are significant and real. Providing access to the free education for the children of downtrodden peoples like tribals, lower castes, and dalits is a complex issue in India wherein the fragmentation in the society along religious, ethnic and linguistic lines is deep rooted. In addition, rampant poverty which is the root cause of child labor leaves no time for the affected children to undertake formal schooling. In this paper we review various facets of and challenges in providing access to universal elementary education for the children from socially weaker sections in India. The paper delves into various aspects of this ambitious aim and suggest measures for mitigating the risks and pitfall in India’s march towards achievement of 100% literacy of over 1 billion people. We also explore the ways in which the strengths of ICT can be leveraged in achievement of the goal.

Child labour: ground realities of Indian labour laws

There has been growing international consensus on issues related to child labour – evident in various declarations, platforms, conventions, programmes of action etc. Child labour is the economic exploitation of children, or performance of any work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the child’s health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development. Poverty is the principal cause of child labour. Mostly the children work to support their families and also for their own survival. Paradoxically, however, child labour further aggravates the poverty syndrome as it usually deprives the children of education and opportunity to acquire skills for developing earning potentials. Other causes of child labour include family indebtedness, the lack or poor quality of schooling or non‐formal education, breakdown of extended family, uneducated parents, local cultural setting, and consumerism. It goes beyond economic exploitation or hazardous employment to include forced labour, trafficking, sexual exploitation and the use of children for the production and trafficking of illegal drugs. This article will ponder the socio‐legal situation of child labour and the large number of legislative enactments regarding labour in India, as well as their realities on the ground.

Socio‐economic conditions of child labor

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explore the extent and the effect of socio‐economic and demographic factors that lead to the phenomenon of child labor in the fishing sector of Balochistan (province of Pakistan).Design/methodology/approachIn order to explore the objectives, the paper first develops simple hypothesis followed by descriptive and regression analysis.FindingsThe findings of the paper show that in the coastal areas about 30 percent of the children are involved in fishing. It is observed that the main cause of child labor is not poverty it comes out to be low quality of education, lack of job opportunity, and lack of development.Research limitations/implicationsThe data used for the assessment cover wide‐spread coastal areas but still have some limitation for several reasons. First, it is rapid assessment done to gain the first hand knowledge about the extent of child labor and their socio‐economic culture they belong too. Second, the official data do not include information on education and employment facilities in these towns. Thus, severity may not be truly reflected.Practical implicationsEducation with training needed to improve fishing skill may help in this regard. The state of education also needs improvement as high illiteracy and dropout rates reflect inadequacy.Originality/valueExtent of child labor in these towns is not reported by any official statistics. This paper attempts to provide the picture of the severity of the problems and its probable causes.

Indonesian Children's Views and Experiences of Work and Poverty

While the causes of child labour are multifaceted and complex, economic disadvantage is generally identified as an important contributing factor. Child labour is also cited as perpetuating poverty. The precise relationship between child labour and poverty is, however, contested. This paper aims to deepen understanding of the relationship between children's work and poverty by focusing on children's views and experiences. Drawing on research with children in Indonesia, this paper examines two questions. First, how do working children define and experience poverty? Second, how do working children view the relationship between their work and poverty?

School attendance of child labor: A pilot survey in Gaibandha district of Bangladesh

The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of some selected determinants on school attendance of child laborers in Bangladesh. For this, the data were collected from 1157 child laborers of Gaibandha district, using purposive sampling technique based on the scheduled questionnaire. To analyze the collected data, univariate analysis, c2- test statistic and logistic regression technique are used respectively. The results have been revealed that 63.80% child labors have completed their primary level education and 70.80% child labors have left school at age (5 - 17) years. Also, it is found that 80.80% child aged from 5 to 17 years were not going to school but 79.80% child labors have interest to go to school. The effect of respondents’ age, working hour per day and working place on school attendance was found to be negative while educational qualification of father and father alive has positive significant effect on school attendance. The interesting point is that mother’s education has strong impact than father’s education. Poverty was found to be the major cause of child labor to leave their school. Long-time work of the child labor revealed fewer attendants to the school. it is evident from the study that children of large families are more vulnerable to less schooling. Finally, this paper provides some suggestive policy measures which may be very effective to increase school attendance of the child laborers. Key words: Child labor, school attendance, c2- test, logistic regression.

ON THE MOTHER AND CHILD LABOR NEXUS UNDER CREDIT CONSTRAINTS: FINDINGS FROM RURAL INDIA

There is an emerging consensus that lack of credit is a major cause of child labor and inequality in the intrahousehold distribution of resources. At the same time, patterns in how children spend their time appear to be strongly influenced by maternal employment decisions. This paper includes an assessment of the effect of credit constraints on maternal employment and that of maternal employment on the intrahousehold allocation of labor, a nexus which has been left unexplored by existing studies. Three findings emerge: (1) a mother is more likely to work outside when a household lacks resources, and her domestic labor can be easily replaced by other members, (2) credit market accessibility is one of the major determinants of maternal labor, and (3) elder daughters assume a large part of the burden of maternal employment by providing domestic labor. Under binding credit constraints, results of this study support the collective as opposed to the unitary model of households.

Small Hands in Silicon City- Bangalore: Some Facts and Experiences at Grass Root Level

The problem of child labour in India has of late assumed the proportion of a social menace threatening the very fabrics of a social milieu. It has remained both an economic and a social problem for a long time. According to the latest ILO report more than 100 million children below the age of 14 years are toiling in different corners of India. As different cultures and societies define childhood in different ways Government polices and programmes should be culturally and geographically specific. Recent studies have revealed that there are many reasons other than economic compulsion to perpetuate child labour. In this paper here is an attempt has been made to examine the different causes of child labour emphasizing, on the factors other than poverty at grass root level, in Bangalore city and community perceptions about child labour and government efforts to eradicate this problem. Also this paper adding the general knowledge base of how community evaluates the risk and age associated with the child labour, an understand crucial to advancing global efforts to immediately remove children from the most hazardous forms of work.

Western Policies on Child Labor Abroad

Child labor evokes deep emotions and is cause for growing international concern. Most recent global estimates show that 186 million children are engaged in full time economic activity. This paper discusses the possibilities and pitfalls of Western policies that seek to curb child labor abroad. Since such policies aim to combat practices in other societies, policy-makers should be aware of the many relevant differences between developing and developed countries. We discuss three issues that are central to this debate: different conceptions of childhood and the dominance of the Western conception in these debates; the distinction between child work and child labor; and socioeconomic causes of child labor. We then evaluate the implications of these investigations for direct and indirect policy options against child labor abroad.

Socioeconomic causes of child labor in urban Nigeria

Drawing on interviews with 1,535 children (aged 8–14 years) in urban Nigeria, this study introduces two new measures of child labor—child's ownership of business and control over earnings—to supplement the conventional use of a child's hours of work and to create a wider understanding of child labor. It examines the causes of child labor and how these measures vary by parental socioeconomic status. Study of this relationship is important for a deeper understanding of the varying patterns of child labor, as well as for clarifying the cultural and economic socialization of children. Our findings show that children of parents with higher socioeconomic status are more likely to own businesses rather than assist parents. These children are also more likely to keep and spend their work earnings. Our results also offer strong support of the poverty hypothesis and the socialization theory, which are often used to explain child labor in developing societies. Furthermore, our results indicate that children of paren...

Hazardous Child Labor: Lead and Neurocognitive Development

Hazardous child labor is challenging to define and quantify in the context of acute or chronic toxic exposures--either of which may cause significant disease and disability. Epidemiologic occupational studies in adults have documented many harmful outcomes secondary to exposure to toxic substances. Occupational surveillance efforts often have focused on acute injuries because they are more readily identified. Fassa has been able to compile data concerning injuries to child laborers but notes, "There is great need for studies in developing countries ... on the impact of child labour on illness." Although injuries may be underreported or undocumented among child laborers, acute injury is, at least, potentially recordable. This is in sharp contrast to toxic exposures, where exposure assessment is usually difficult and costly. This is especially true when it is done after an exposure has taken place. The outcomes of most toxic workplace exposures to children remain unknown. The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registries (ATSDR) notes that in similar environments, children may have greater exposures than adults: "Pound for pound of body weight, children drink more water, eat more food, and breathe more air than adults," and "In some instances, children are less able than adults to detoxify chemicals and are thus more vulnerable." Children who begin work at an early age have many more years to develop illness than an adult doing the same work. A household survey of child laborers in Ethiopia found that a high proportion (greater than 90%) of children in both urban and rural areas of the country reported non-use of protective equipment. However, it is the experience of present author D.P. that this equipment is rarely if ever adequate, even when made available. For example, protective equipment such as respirators or impermeable gloves are designed for adults, and thus do not properly fit children. In defining hazardous child labor, the larger context of public health cannot be ignored. The study of child labor needs to take into account the baseline health of exposed individuals. In developing countries, the poorest and most vulnerable children are most often involved in work in order to earn money for survival. These children are also likely to already lack basic necessities of food and medical care, predisposing them to diarrhea, anemia, and micronutrient deficiencies. Underlying nutritional conditions may make children more susceptible to the effects of toxic substances such as lead. In addition, child laborers also may be exposed to lead and other toxic substances from their poor living conditions.

Work and behavioural problems in children and adolescents

We conducted a cross-sectional study of 3139 children and adolescents from poor areas of the city of Pelotas, southern Brazil. We employed the child behaviour checklist for estimating BP. We performed multivariable analysis using Poisson's regression for confounder control. The proportion of workers was 13.8% (7.3% among children and 20.7% among adolescents). Prevalence of BP among workers and prevalence ratios (PRs) were 21.4% (PR = 1.3; CI 0.9-1.9) among children and 9.5% (PR = 0.6; CI 0.4-1.0) among adolescents. Considering workers only, the risk of BP was 2.7 times greater (CI 1.4-5.1) among children when compared with adolescents. Working in domestic services among children and beginning to work at an early age among adolescents were associated with BP. Our results reinforce the need for respecting the minimum age for admission to employment established by the ILO Convention 138 and by the Brazilian legislation and contribute to the discussion about the occupations that should be considered as hazardous child labour.

REGULATION OF CHILD LABOUR

The authors discuss the reasons for the employment of children in developing economies and analyse the appropriateness of regulation in this controversial area. The political economy of enforcement of child labour legislation is also examined. In most cases, they argue, domestic policies to address the underlying causes of child labour are better suited to improve children's lot than regulations; in particular, trade sanctions may be counterproductive

Child Labor and Schooling Decisions in Urban and Rural Areas: Comparative Evidence from Nepal, Peru, and Zimbabwe

Summary This study sheds some light on the causes of child labor using crosscountry empirical data. We find that while poverty is the main cause of child labor in rural areas, there is a general lack of support for the poverty hypothesis in urban areas. Similarly, improving access to credit has a greater potential for alleviating child labor and enhancing school attendance in rural areas. On the other hand, availability of alternative childcare options promises greater impact in urban areas. Finally, the evidence from all countries suggests that efforts to bolster adult educational level and wage will help curb the prevalence and intensity of child labor and improve the likelihood that children stay in school.

Child Labor and Multinational Conduct: A Comparison of International Business andStakeholder Codes

Increasing attention to the issue of child labor has been reflected in codes of conduct that emerged in the past decade in particular. This paper examines the way in which multinationals, business associations, governmental and non-governmental organizations deal with child labor in their codes. With a standardized framework, it analyzes 55 codes drawn up by these different actors to influence firms’ external, societal behavior. The exploratory study helps to identify the main issues related to child labor and the use of voluntary instruments such as codes of conduct. Apart from a specific indication of the topics covered by the code, especially minimum-age requirements, this also includes monitoring systems and monitoring parties. Most important to company codes are the sanctions imposed on business partners in case of non-compliance. Severe measures may be counterproductive as they do not change the underlying causes of child labor and can worsen the situation of the child workers by driving them to more hazardous work in the informal sector. This underlines the importance of a broad rather than a restrictive approach to child labor in codes of conduct. The paper discusses the implications of this study, offering suggestions for future research.

Eradication of hazardous child labour in Bangladesh: The need for an integrated strategy

AbstractNo Abstract

Do Market Wages Influence Child Labour and Child Schooling?

This paper provides empirical evidence on the joint determinants of child labor, and child schooling, using individual level data from Egypt. The main findings are as follows: 1) A ten percent increase in the illiterate male market wage decreases the probability of child labor by 21.5 percent for boys, and 13.1 percent for girls. 2) Higher local regional income inequality increases the likelihood of child labor. 3) Parents who were child laborers themselves, are more likely to send their children out to work. 4) Local labor market conditions - the share of adults engaged in the public sector, or in non-regular jobs - play an important role in influencing child labor participation. 5) There is a trade-off between child labor, and child schooling. The results suggest that not only is poverty the main cause of child labor, but that child labor perpetuates poverty as well.

The Economics of Child Labor: Comment

In a recent paper, Kaushik Basu and Pham Hoang Van (BV, 1998) develop an important and very interesting model in which a fairly productive economy exhibits multiple equilibria, with children working in at least one. They identify two assumptions as essential to this result. The first - - which they call the luxury axiom - - is that a family sends its children to the labor market only if its income from sources other than child labor is very low. The second is embodied in their substitution axiom which states that from the point of view of firms, child labor is substitutable for adult In this comment, we show that in addition to these two assumptions about the micro-level behavior of households and firms, there is also an essential macro-level assumption that may be termed the distribution axiom: income or wealth from non-labor sources must be sufficiently concentrated in the hands of a few agents. We establish that if non-labor income is distributed with sufficient equality, a market equilibrium with child labor cannot exist in the BV model. Beyond their contribution as an extension of BV's theory, our results formalize a proposition implicit in recent policy discussions of child Christiaan Grootaert and Ravi Kanbur (1995) note that as household-level poverty is well-known to be the major cause of child labor, [g]eneral economic development, equitably distributed, is the best and most sustainable way of reducing child labor. (p. 198, emphasis added) Policy documents from the International Labor Organization (ILO) have long conveyed this view, and now the World Bank appears to as well (Peter Fallon and Zafiris Tzannatos, 1998). There is a growing recognition that while economic development and development policies are necessary to eliminating child labor, they are not always sufficient on their own. Distributional considerations matter. Indeed, in the case in which BV's model yields multiple equilibria, the economy is developed enough to eliminate child In this comment it becomes clear that if child labor exists in this economy, the causes are purely distributional.

Child labour: the most visible type of child abuse and neglect in India

Child labour is the most visible type of child abuse and neglect in India. In spite of contra-legislation, it continues unabated. The enforcement machinery is inadequate. This paper is a discussion of why child labour is a form of child abuse and neglect. Definitions of child labour and child abuse and neglect are presented. These are followed by a report on the extent of child labour in India and the industries employing children, set within a description of the legislative context. The causes of child labour and their consequences are also discussed. There is a dearth of Indian research on the psychological consequences of child abuse, and of child labour in particular. Only the physical consequences of child labour in a few industries in India have been documented. Research findings from the developed nations are touched upon for a discussion of the psychological sequelae. The paper concludes with a few recommendations for the prevention and control of child labour. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Combatting Child Labour

This article summarizes some features of the Radda Barnen (Swedish Save the Children) study `Children's Perspectives on their Working Lives'. The case is made for working children's participation in the process of combatting child labour. Their participation will help ensure that interventions designed to eliminate exploitative and hazardous child labour are context appropriate, locally sustainable and child centred. This study is a contribution to the process. A specially designed Children's Perspectives Protocol guided group activities with over 300 children in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, the Philippines and Central America. This article summarizes selected issues addressed by the study, including children's occupational preferences and their views on work and school.