Nut Harvesting Research Articles

Differences among Chestnut Hybrids and Their Litter Fauna

The composition of soil is determined by plants and their organic waste that has been broken down and recycled throughout the ecosystem. This process is controlled by bugs within the soil, called litter fauna. The analysis of litter fauna under the American Chestnut tree species gives details on the effects of that plant on the environment. The American chestnut has been functionally extinct since the introduction of the Chinese Chestnut blight to America in 1910’s. The American Chestnut used to dominate ecosystems and drive industry related to timber and nut harvest. Hybridization of the different American and Chinese Chestnut tree species has changed their morphology over the years in attempts to create a blight resistant hybrid. Scientists are unaware of the effects of the absence of American chestnuts and the emergence of pollinated hybrids on soil type and presence of litter fauna. Litter fauna diversity and population can help distinguish the health of an ecosystem therefore I hypothesized that abundance of individuals of non-Acarina taxa differs among hybrid tree types. Litter was collected under American Chestnut trees, Chinese Chestnut and two of their hybrids. The fauna was extracted using a Berlese funnel and analyzed. I concluded that there is no functional difference in non-Acarina fauna samples among the hybrids and their pure-bred counterparts. This indicates that the reintroduction of American Chestnuts and their hybrids into the ecosystem will not negatively affect the soil and its litter fauna.

Utility pattern of coconut climbing equipment by rural youth of Mandya district Karnataka, India

Premise of research: Timely non-availability of skilled labours for harvesting nuts coupled with fluctuating market prices are the major challenges in coconut cultivation. The scarcity of labour disrupted the harvesting cycle causing loss of income to the growers. The traditional method of climbing coconut tree involved more physical drudgery, risk to the life, time consuming and less effective in harvesting nuts. Hence, a new friends of coconut tree (FOCT) was introduced and has relatively more advantageous over to that of traditional one. Realising this Coconut Development Board (CDB) had organised training programme to impart skills of using FOCT for the rural youths in association with KVKs and National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM), GoK. Methodology: The survey was conducted in Mandya district, 70 youth were selected randomly as respondents covering all the 7 talukas. Research design adopted was Ex-post facto evaluation type. Structured interview schedule was developed, pre-tested in non-sample area. Data were collected by personal interview method and analysed using statistical tests to draw the inference. Pivotal results: The findings revealed that majority of the respondents (75.72%) had used the FOCT for self (Personal use) only and all the respondents (100%) used it during Kharif season, followed by ¾ of them (78.57%) used during Rabi 2/3 rd of them (67.13%) used during summer seasons. Further, majority of the respondents (62.85%) did not use the coconut palm climbing equipment for harvesting of tender nuts during Kharif season and had used it for harvesting of matured nuts for a period of 1 to 5 days during Rabi season. Followed by nearly 3/4 th of them (72.86%) did not use the equipment for crown cleaning purpose during Kharif as it was not a regular routine activity and used it whenever tree was infested. To conclude that majority of the respondents used the FOCT for self in their gardens and also to some extent for income earning. The findings with respect to association between utility pattern of equipment and social variables, the family size, land holding and educational level found have no significant association with utility pattern of coconut climbing equipment. The socio-economic profile of the respondents was, majority of them had nucleus type of family, had owned marginal land, were professing dairy as a subsidiary occupation for their livelihood and acquired collegiate level of schooling. Conclusion : The skill training on coconut climbing equipment usage for harvesting coconuts to generate self employment was organised by Krishi Vigyan Kendra in association with Coconut Board during 2015. The youth entrepreneurs acquired skills by using the equipment to harvest the coconuts and cleaning of crown of coconut tree . Majority of them had used the equipment for self and a few of them used for generating self employment by going outside their gardens. The extent of utility varied from season to season. The utility pattern equipment was not significantly associated with the social factors such as family size, land holding and education level. There might be other factors influencing on the utility pattern of the equipment.

Evolution of potent odorants within the volatile metabolome of high-quality hazelnuts (Corylus avellana L.): evaluation by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry.

Within the pattern of volatiles released by food products (volatilome), potent odorants are bio-active compounds that trigger aroma perception by activating a complex array of odor receptors (ORs) in the regio olfactoria. Their informative role is fundamental to select optimal post-harvest and storage conditions and preserve food sensory quality. This study addresses the volatile metabolome from high-quality hazelnuts (Corylus avellana L.) from the Ordu region (Turkey) and Tonda Romana from Italy, and investigates its evolution throughout the production chain (post-harvest, industrial storage, roasting) to find functional correlations between technological strategies and product quality. The volatile metabolome is analyzed by headspace solid-phase microextration combined with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. Dedicated pattern recognition, based on 2D data (targeted fingerprinting), is used to mine analytical outputs, while principal component analysis (PCA), Fisher ratio, hierarchical clustering, and analysis of variance are used to find decision makers among the most informative chemicals. Low-temperature drying (18-20°C) has a decisive effect on quality; it correlates negatively with bacteria and mold metabolic activity, nut viability, and lipid oxidation products (2-methyl-1-propanol, 3-methyl-1-butanol, 2-ethyl-1-hexanol, 2-octanol, 1-octen-3-ol, hexanal, octanal and (E)-2-heptanal). Protective atmosphere storage (99% N2-1% O2) effectively limits lipid oxidation for 9-12months after nut harvest. The combination of optimal drying and storage preserves the aroma potential; after roasting at different shelf-lives, key odorants responsible for malty and buttery (2- and 3-methylbutanal, 2,3-butanedione and 2,3-pentanedione), earthy (methylpyrazine, 2-ethyl-5-methyl pyrazine and 3-ethyl-2,5-dimethyl pyrazine) and caramel-like and musty notes (2,5-dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone - furaneol and acetyl pyrrole) show no significant variation. Graphical abstract Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC × GC) coupled with mass spectrometric detection captures hazelnut volatiles signatures while advanced fingerprinting approaches based on pattern recognition enable access to a higher level of information.

Are Brazil nut populations threatened by fruit harvest?

AbstractHarvest of Brazil nuts from the large, iconic tree Bertholletia excelsa generates substantial income for smallholders, providing a strong incentive to conserve the mature forests where it grows. Although much previous work has focused on the impact of nut harvest on new seedling recruits into B. excelsa populations, the connection between harvest rates and long‐term population stability is still unclear. Moreover, there is additional uncertainty for Brazil nut management in terms of population response to climate change and other anthropogenic influences. We drew on 14 years of research in two sites in Acre, Brazil with different B. excelsa nut harvest intensities (39% and 81%), to produce stochastic and deterministic matrix population models which incorporated parameter uncertainty in vital rates. Adult abundance was projected to remain close to the current observed abundance or higher through the next 50 years. Elasticity analyses revealed that the asymptotic population growth rate (λ) was most sensitive to stasis vital rates in sapling, juvenile, and adult stages. Deterministic transition matrices calculated using diameter growth rates dependent on rainfall yielded average λ values around 1.0 under extreme high, extreme low, and average annual rainfall. While sustained high rates of Brazil nut harvest and climate change could potentially negatively impact B. excelsa populations, changes in human use of the forested landscape are more immediate concern. To reduce the risk of population decline, smallholders and managers of B. excelsa rich forests should focus on conservation of pre‐mature and mature individuals.

Occupational exposure of cashew nut workers to Kyasanur Forest disease in Goa, India

A series of suspected cases of Kyasanur Forest disease (KFD) in subjects returning to Belgaum in Karnataka State from Goa, India, is reported herein. KFD was confirmed in 13 out of 76 cases, either by real time RT-PCR or IgM ELISA. No case fatality was recorded. KFD virus positivity was also recorded among humans and monkeys from Sattari taluk in Goa during the same period. The envelope gene sequence of positive human samples from Belgaum showed highest identity of 99.98% to 99.99% with sequences of KFD virus isolated from human cases and monkeys from Goa. KFD activity has been reported from Goa among humans and monkeys since 2015. However, it has not been reported from Belgaum to date. These findings suggest that the cases (migrant laborers) contracted infection during cashew nut harvesting from KFD-affected Keri village, Sattari taluk, Goa and became ill after or during migration from the affected area to their native residence.

Tenure diversity and dependent causation in the effects of regional integration on land use: evaluating the evolutionary theory of land rights in Acre, Brazil

ABSTRACTIn the complex causation behind land change, dependent causation can play a central role. A case in point concerns land tenure diversity, where contrasting use rules for different lands may affect the impacts of other drivers on land use outcomes. We therefore evaluate the evolutionary theory of land rights (ETLR), which assumes homogeneous private property rights, in order to test for dependent causation due to distinct use rules among various types of private lands. In the present analysis, we focus on whether land tenure type modifies the effects of highway infrastructure on key outcomes highlighted in the ETLR framework. We take up the case of rural settlements along the Inter-Oceanic Highway in the eastern part of the Brazilian state of Acre, where there is considerable land tenure diversity. Findings from multivariate models for land titling, the castanha nut harvest, and cattle pasture all indicate that the effects of infrastructure depend on land tenure type. These results confirm the importance of dependent causation behind land use and bear implications for theory on land change, infrastructure impacts, and land system science.

Trade-offs among ecosystem services under different pinion harvesting intensities in Brazilian Araucaria Forests

ABSTRACTAssessing the consequences of human exploitation at different intensities on ecosystem services is important in the Brazilian Araucaria Forest biome, because it has been drastically reduced, mainly due to the exploitation of Araucaria angustifolia (Bertol.) Kuntze for wood. The inclusion of A. angustifolia on the list of Brazilian endangered plant species places the harvesting of Araucaria nuts as the most important provisioning service in this type of ecosystem. The aim of this study was to determine the trade-offs related to provisioning, supporting and regulating ecosystem services in the Araucaria Forest at different intensities of nut harvesting, by addressing ecosystem attributes that assure forest sustainability. Six indicators of ecosystem services were evaluated in harvested and non-harvested areas in Brazilian Araucaria Forest fragments. Trade-offs were examined under five harvesting intensities. The supporting services were the most sensitive to the harvesting intensity. The results indicate that a harvesting threshold of between 60% and 85% of the nuts produced guarantees forest sustainability. In addition, areas under higher harvesting intensities provide more short-term benefit services at the local scale that can be included in the formal market.EDITED BY John Parrotta

Traditional and alternative techniques of Chilgoza Pine (Pinus gerardiana Wall.ex D. Don) nut harvesting and processing in Afghanistan.

Chilgoza pine nut is an important non-timber forest product (NTFP) of Afghanistan. Chilgoza pine cones reach at maturity in August and cone collection continues until the end of September. Local communities and or contractors harvest pine cones from chilgoza trees every year. Usually, chilgoza pine cones are harvested unsustainably in Afghanistan. People harvest cones from chilgoza trees without considering tree health and natural regeneration. The extraction process of pine nut is also unsustainable and time consuming. In this study, we investigated traditional chilgoza pine cone harvesting and pine nut extraction techniques across the chilgoza pine range in Afghanistan. Our study revealed that mostly chilgoza pine cones are collected by contractors however, this trend is region dependent. In the eastern provinces, cones are predominantly harvested by villagers; while in southern provinces cones are usually harvested by contractors. Cones of chilgoza pine is collected with a sharp hook attached to the end of a long stick and or small axes. The most common method of cone drying is sun and air dry. Once dried, scales of the cones open naturally and pine nuts are extracted by beating the cones with a stick or over a hard surface. Traditional methods can be replaced by use of better harvesting equipment and extraction techniques. With the use of better equipment, damages can be reduced to trees during cone harvesting.

Optimization of a Citrus Canopy Shaker Harvesting System: Mechanistic Tree Damage and Fruit Detachment Models

<abstract> Mechanization of fruit and nut harvesting is becoming increasingly important because of a significant rise in the cost of manual harvesting. This work proposes a progressive analytical approach for the design and optimization of a citrus canopy shaker harvesting machine. The approach was formulated using finite element (FE) methods to find the optimum design parameters of the machine. The design parameters were defined in terms of a configuration (or stiffness) of shaking rods and two operating parameters: shaking frequency and shaking amplitude. The formulated methodology consists of determining the properties of wood, statistical modeling of the tree limbs, developing mechanistic models, and performing optimization using FE simulations. The proposed methodology employs the response surface methodology or surrogate models to quantify the objective functions, and Pareto-optimal search techniques to find the optimum designs. Three sets of machine parameters were proposed in this study to minimize tree damage and maximize fruit removal. These optimal parameters were proposed based on the configuration and distribution of limbs and fruits in a medium-size citrus tree. The optimized tine configuration of the middle and bottom section of the canopy shaker consists of a solid rod made of polyamide reinforced with 50% long glass fibers and a hollow tube made of hardened steel in a 3:1 ratio by length. These tines, when vibrating at a high frequency of 7.8 Hz and low amplitude of 3.81 to 5.08 cm (1.5 to 2 in.) and a low frequency of 3 to 3.5Â Hz and high amplitude of 13.9 to 15.2 cm (5.5 to 6 in.), provide a 25% to 30% reduction in damage to the tree limbs in the bottom and middle zones of the tree. Similarly, changes to the top sections of the canopy shaker with another set of optimized tine configurations resulted in a 40% to 45% reduction in the damage to the limbs of the top section of the tree canopy. The optimized tine configuration, thus proposed for the top section of the canopy shaker, is made of a solid rod of polyamide reinforced with 60% long glass fibers and vibrates at a frequency of 6.5 to 7.5 Hz with an amplitude of 7.6 to 8.9 cm (3 to 3.5 in.).

Study of Coconut Tree Climber Use Efficiency over Traditional Methods in Chitradurga District of Karnataka

Coconut is one of the most important crops under rainfed conditions in marginal soil of Chitradurga districts. Majority of the coconut growers in the district were facing the problem of theft of fallen nuts and shortage of skilled labor for nut harvesting. The traditional method of harvesting the nuts using knife with bamboo sticks for dwarf trees and climbing the tall trees was quite risky and accident prone. To overcome this problem, ICAR-Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Chitradurga conducted training programmes to unemployed rural farm youths in collaboration with Coconut Development Board, Cochin. Total 80 farm youths were trained during 2012–13. With the conventional coconut climbing, a person could harvest about 8–25 nuts/tree while climbing the tree one had experienced body pain, muscles catch and lot of life risk with meager earnings of Rs.5, 000-15, 000/-year. After using the Coconut tree climber, annual income increased to Rs.20, 000-60, 000/-year and a person could climb more than 80–100 feet tall coconut tree without any life risk and harvesting efficiency increased to tune of 20–50 nuts/tree. This was encouraged many youths from surrounding villages to approach KVK to undergo training and choose coconut harvesting as an employment generation opportunity to meet their livelihood demand. Simultaneously, farmers were also benefitted by harvesting the nuts at right time and getting quality nuts also good price in the market.

Nut Production in Bertholletia excelsa across a Logged Forest Mosaic: Implications for Multiple Forest Use.

Although many examples of multiple-use forest management may be found in tropical smallholder systems, few studies provide empirical support for the integration of selective timber harvesting with non-timber forest product (NTFP) extraction. Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa, Lecythidaceae) is one of the world’s most economically-important NTFP species extracted almost entirely from natural forests across the Amazon Basin. An obligate out-crosser, Brazil nut flowers are pollinated by large-bodied bees, a process resulting in a hard round fruit that takes up to 14 months to mature. As many smallholders turn to the financial security provided by timber, Brazil nut fruits are increasingly being harvested in logged forests. We tested the influence of tree and stand-level covariates (distance to nearest cut stump and local logging intensity) on total nut production at the individual tree level in five recently logged Brazil nut concessions covering about 4000 ha of forest in Madre de Dios, Peru. Our field team accompanied Brazil nut harvesters during the traditional harvest period (January-April 2012 and January-April 2013) in order to collect data on fruit production. Three hundred and ninety-nine (approximately 80%) of the 499 trees included in this study were at least 100 m from the nearest cut stump, suggesting that concessionaires avoid logging near adult Brazil nut trees. Yet even for those trees on the edge of logging gaps, distance to nearest cut stump and local logging intensity did not have a statistically significant influence on Brazil nut production at the applied logging intensities (typically 1–2 timber trees removed per ha). In one concession where at least 4 trees ha-1 were removed, however, the logging intensity covariate resulted in a marginally significant (0.09) P value, highlighting a potential risk for a drop in nut production at higher intensities. While we do not suggest that logging activities should be completely avoided in Brazil nut rich forests, when a buffer zone cannot be observed, low logging intensities should be implemented. The sustainability of this integrated management system will ultimately depend on a complex series of socioeconomic and ecological interactions. Yet we submit that our study provides an important initial step in understanding the compatibility of timber harvesting with a high value NTFP, potentially allowing for diversification of forest use strategies in Amazonian Perù.

Factors Affecting Recruitment of a Critically-Endangered Dipterocarp Species, Vateria indica in the Western Ghats, India

Vateria indica is a critically-endangered and economically-important tree endemic to the Western Ghats, a biodiversity hotspot in India. Due to extreme local endemism and anthropogenic destructive harvesting of resin, the species is categorized as critically endangered. The present study investigated the biotic limiting factors of recruitment of V. inidica in its natural populations, and studied the pattern of anthropogenic harvest of nuts of V. indica in the recent past. Seed predation and seedling herbivory particularly by insects were assessed. The sustainability of the nut harvest was assessed by conducting pre- and post-harvest censuses of nuts on forest floors. Over 90 % of the fruits of V. indica were infested by the insects, but, only about 10 % of the infested fruits were seed-predated. Seedling herbivores included a leaf miner, ants of two species, and larvae of a lymantrid moth. Seedling mortality due to herbivores was moderate (45.5 %). Pre- and post-harvest censuses showed that only 3.81 % of the fruits that were naturally-fallen on the forest floor were spared after the harvest had taken place. Sringeri has exported 820 metric tons of nuts in the study year, which was an all-time high estimate. The study concludes that the anthropogenic nut collection can hamper the population structure of V. indica locally. Since V. indica has an alternate-year major flowering cycle, the seed loss as seen in the present study is critical. Raising plantations of V. indica as an afforestation program can contribute to the conservation of the species and the development of local communities.

Testing and modelling the effects of climate on the incidence of the emergent nut rot agent of chestnut Gnomoniopsis castanea

Gnomoniopsis castanea is an emerging fungal pathogen causing nut rot of sweet chestnut, Castanea sativa. This study was aimed at testing and modelling the effects of climate on disease incidence. Up to 120 ripe nuts were collected in 2011 from trees in each of 12 sites located in the northwest of Italy. The incidence of G. castanea in each site was expressed as the number of infected nuts out of the total number of nuts sampled (%), determined by combining the results of morphological identification of isolates obtained from nuts, and their typing through a newly developed taxon‐specific molecular assay. Disease incidence ranged from 20 to 93%, depending on site. Geostatistical analyses revealed that, despite the clustering of sites (P &lt; 0·05), disease incidence was not spatially autocorrelated (P &gt; 0·05). This finding suggests that the disease is influenced by site‐dependent factors whose scale (c. 7·5–15·6 km) is consistent with the climate variability throughout the sampling region. Multivariate analyses on maximum, mean and minimum temperatures and on rainfall showed that warmer temperatures were associated with higher levels of disease incidence. The temperatures of months before nut harvesting were selected as predictors for partial least squares regression (PLSR) models (GnoMods) of G. castanea incidence. External validation on data collected either on sites or in years not used for model fitting showed the good predictive abilities of the GnoMods (Spearman's ρobs/pred &gt; 0·72, P &lt; 0·05). The above findings support a relationship between climate and incidence of G. castanea, providing statistical tools to forecast disease incidence at site level.

Anthropogenic landscape in southeastern Amazonia: contemporary impacts of low-intensity harvesting and dispersal of Brazil nuts by the Kayapó Indigenous people.

Brazil nut, the Bertholletia excelsa seed, is one of the most important non-timber forest products in the Amazon Forest and the livelihoods of thousands of traditional Amazonian families depend on its commercialization. B. excelsa has been frequently cited as an indicator of anthropogenic forests and there is strong evidence that past human management has significantly contributed to its present distribution across the Amazon, suggesting that low levels of harvesting may play a positive role in B. excelsa recruitment. Here, we evaluate the effects of Brazil nut harvesting by the Kayapó Indigenous people of southeastern Amazonia on seedling recruitment in 20 B. excelsa groves subjected to different harvesting intensities, and investigated if management by harvesters influences patterns of B. excelsa distribution. The number of years of low-intensity Brazil nut harvesting by the Kayapó over the past two decades was positively related to B. excelsa seedling density in groves. One of the mechanisms behind the higher seedling density in harvested sites seems to be seed dispersal by harvesters along trails. The Kayapó also intentionally plant B. excelsa seeds and seedlings across their territories. Our results show not only that low-intensity Brazil nut harvesting by the Kayapó people does not reduce recruitment of seedlings, but that harvesting and/or associated activities conducted by traditional harvesters may benefit B. excelsa beyond grove borders. Our study supports the hypothesis that B. excelsa dispersal throughout the Amazon was, at least in part, influenced by indigenous groups, and strongly suggests that current human management contributes to the maintenance and formation of B. excelsa groves. We suggest that changes in Brazil nut management practices by traditional people to prevent harvesting impacts may be unnecessary and even counterproductive in many areas, and should be carefully evaluated before implementation.

Environmental Variance and Broad-sense Heritability of Nut Traits in Japanese Chestnut Breeding

We evaluated the nut harvesting date (NHD), nut weight (NW), pericarp splitting (PS), and infestation by insects (II) in eight cultivars/selections of Japanese chestnut, including a Japanese–Chinese hybrid, over 6 years. Data were analyzed by analysis of variance (without transformation for NHD, after log-transformation for NW and PS, and after square root transformation for II). The among-tree variance accounted for only 1.1% to 8.5% of the total variance. The variance component resulting from residual factors for the tree × year interaction and sampling errors was the largest component for NW, PS, and II, accounting for 46% to 54% of the total environmental variance. Because tree replication is costly and time-consuming in chestnut breeding, increasing the number of yearly repetitions is more efficient than increasing the number of tree replicates. Broad-sense heritability was 0.84 for NHD, 0.27 for NW, 0.48 for PS, and 0.17 for II in evaluations with one tree without yearly repetition. It increased to 0.91 for NHD, 0.40 for NW, 0.62 for PS, and 0.29 for II in evaluations with one tree in 2 years. For NHD, the heritabilities are sufficiently high to distinguish genetic differences among cultivars/selection. In contrast, the low heritability of II suggests that this trait should not be evaluated with an emphasis on the initial selection stage but rather with an emphasis on the secondary selection stage based on testing at several locations with a large number of yearly and tree replications.

Effects of flower buds removal on seasonal starch storage and mobilization in fruiting and non-fruiting branches of pistachio trees cv. Mateur under dry and warm climate

Fruit trees need to store reserves to allow their survival during winter and for bud flush and leaf growth in the following spring. The current study investigated the effects of alternate bearing and flower buds removal on seasonal starch storage and mobilization in leaves, current shoot and one-year-old wood of fruiting and non-fruiting branches of ‘Mateur’ pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) trees in arid land. Four treatments were applied; T0: untreated trees, T1: removal of all flower buds for one year, T2: removal of all flower buds for two successive years and T3: removal of 50% of flower buds for each year. Annual starch storage and mobilization in fruiting and non-fruiting branches of pistachio trees appeared to be driven by crop load, nut development stage and carbohydrate demands. Starch concentrations in leaves, current shoot and one-year-old wood increased slightly in non-fruiting than in fruiting branches of pistachio. In ‘on’ trees (T0 and T3), one-year-old wood starch increased after the initial growth flush, but is mobilized during kernel fill and continued to decrease after nut harvest. Starch mobilization from current shoots of ‘on’ trees during the high demand period of stage III corresponded to the period of flower bud abscission. These results suggested that branch wood starch concentrations represent the overall balance between source and sinks. Subsequent flower buds removal (T1 and T2), leaves accumulated starch during the first and the third stage of nut growth, whereas, gradually increase of starch concentration occurred over the growing season for the current shoots and one-year-old wood. Starch deficiency in current shoots of ‘on’ trees could be responsible for bud drop and finally for alternate bearing. The yield patterns of pistachio trees cv. Mateur have not shown real evidence of alternate bearing in the experimental site. Flower buds removal (T1 and T2) allowed pistachio trees to achieve higher yield potential, while, these two treatments performed the lowest cumulated yield. Removal of 50% of flower buds (T3) did not cause a significant change in yield, compared to untreated trees, in each of the first three years, as well as in the total yield accumulation. When focusing on 2008, this treatment caused a significant increase in yield, compared to other treatments including the control. Current shoot starch status was also higher in 2008 in the 50% fruit removal treatment. If we isolate and focus on the results obtained in 2008, it appears that this treatment can cause more stable yields, possibly through an increase in current shoot starch content. Consequently, under severe climatic conditions of arid land, the annual pruning could be applied to equilibrate flower buds number and to improve the tree starch status.

Brazil nut stock and harvesting at different spatial scales in southeastern Amazonia

Evaluations of the effects of non-timber forest product (NTFP) extractive industries by traditional communities have focused on local effects, but effective conservation of species often requires evaluation at wider scales that can only be efficiently undertaken with the use of remote sensing. Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa seed) is one of the most important NTFP in the Amazon basin and has received considerable attention from researchers aiming to guarantee its sustainability. However, most studies evaluating the impacts of B. excelsa seed harvesting investigated only effects in harvested sites, and did not consider B. excelsa availability in the landscape, or patterns of harvesting at broader scales, which are critical to evaluate the viability of extraction and plan management practices. We used high-resolution satellite images associated with ground truthing, participative mapping with harvesters and harvest records, to evaluate abundance of B. excelsa in the territories of three Kayapó indigenous communities in southeastern Amazonia. This allowed us to obtain conservative estimates of the proportion of Brazil nut harvested by the Kayapó at scales appropriate to evaluate effects on stocks in the landscape and in harvested groves. B. excelsa groves are abundant in the Kayapó lands, but only about 30% of them are harvested. In recent years, the villagers have harvested from 7.2% to 43% of the seeds produced in harvested groves. These represent only 2.5–12.7% of total seeds estimated to have been produced within the Brazil nut-collection territories of those Kayapó villages. Our results show that the Kayapó have undertaken non-intensive Brazil nut harvesting at local and especially at landscape scales, which suggests that B. excelsa is currently not threatened by harvesting in the region and that there is still potential to expand commercial production in at least one of the sites. The application of similar multi-scale approaches in other sites and for other non-timber forest products would provide important information to evaluate their long term conservation, subsidize the development of management plans and help to guarantee the livelihoods of traditional communities.

ROLE OF TEMPERATURE AND ALTITUDE ON FLOWERING PERFORMANCES OF MACADAMIA NUT

The study aimed to observe the flowering of macadamia grown under different locations in northern Thailand. It is hoped that the success of macadamia growing would be an opium substitute crop as well as a reforestation tree in northern Thailand. Although introduced cultivars have adapted well and are grown widely from sea level to the top of mountains, the yield is still low compared to those reported in other countries. The role of microclimate as a factor influencing annual growth cycle should be clearly understood to further develop appropriate cultural practices. Fifteen uniform mature macadamia trees were selected from three sites with two types of microclimate characteristics; mountain ridge and valley at commercial plantations of Doi Tung Development Project in Chiang Rai, northern Thailand. Floral biology, fruiting and vegetative flushing characters were observed from limb at 1.5-2 m above ground level. Air temperature and light intensity, as microclimate parameters were recorded during 2007-2008. Mostly racemes and fruits set on two-year-old shoots. The fruiting shoots of trees located at mountain ridge had significantly shorter length than at the valley site. Seasonal new vegetative shoots at three sites flushed on the same period. Racemes of trees at mountain ridge bloomed earlier in late November; however, it was one month later for trees at valley site. Interestingly, the flower phenology at the valley site showed better performances with a shorter bloom period and higher floret numbers resulting in higher fruiting rate. Daily light intensity, minimum and average temperature of two microclimate types or three altitudes showed similar pattern. Nevertheless, maximum temperature during flowering at the valley site was lower. Thus, the amount of daily temperature interval occurring at lower level might cause the differences in flowering and yield performances. In addition, the flowering and fruit setting of rain-fed and irrigated sites were observed on ten mature trees at the ridge. It was found that trees in rain-fed site had two periods of flowering; the first in-season bloom was in January after annual nut harvesting started and the second bloom, a so-called off-season, was found later in October. The off-season bloom of macadamia trees grown in northern Thailand reflected their adaptability to Thai environment. Thus, it might be a good potential that is of benefit to further develop off-season macadamia nut production.

An unusual empirical pattern in an indigenous setting: cooperative entrepreneurship among Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa) harvesters

The rainforest, as a symbol of life and diversity, is currently under the spotlight; its conservation is a challenge. Although for centuries indigenous people developed sustainable activities within that environment, there is concern today about how to develop viable activities that lead to productive entrepreneurship whilst preserving natural capital. This article investigates best practices of entrepreneurs who cooperate in an organisation, leading to sustainable development. Their experience may inspire others to draw new perspectives.

Opciones de gestión para reducir la cacería ilegal: El caso de la Reserva de Vida Silvestre Amazónica Manuripi, Bolivia

Espinoza, S., Dresdner, J., Chavez, C. (2013). Policy options to reduce illegal hunting: a case study in the Manuripi Amazon Wildlife Reserve, Bolivia. Ecosistemas 22(2):97-103. Doi.: 10.7818/ECOS.2013.22-2.14 Illegal hunting is a threat to wildlife conservation. The motivations for poaching and its possible effects are variable and have not been extensively studied. Applying an economic theoretical-conceptual frame, we analyze the different factors that may determine illegal hunting and discuss some policy implications. Based on the illegal hunting experience during the Brazil nut harvesting season in the Manuripi Amazon Wildlife Reserve, Bolivia, we analyzed an extensive study of non-compliance. By reviewing primary and secondary sources of information and the deterrent economic models theory, we identified that the probability of detection and sanction, morality, legitimacy and social influence may affect compliance with the hunting prohibition in the Manuripi Reserve. Additionally, we consider that knowledge of the regulation may also affect the decision to hunt. Finally, we found empirical evidence suggesting that habits of eating wild meat among collectors and non-wild meat availability are factors that affect the decision to hunt illegally in the Manuripi Reserve. Based on our analysis, the recommendations to reduce illegal hunting during the Brazil nut harvesting period focus on strengthening the enforcement, monitoring and control efforts by the Environmental Authority, in addition to awareness processes that can change the ethical values and cultural habits among collectors.