Harvesting Costs Research Articles

Perception of farmers on the impact of lockdown due to Covid-19 on agriculture and oil palm cultivation in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India

A study was conducted to find the impact of lockdown due to the pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) on agriculture, in general, and on oil palm cultivation, in specific. Results revealed that the majority of the farmers contacted had 26-30 years of farming experience, were between 31-60 years of age, were educated up to high school level, with an average of four family members and possessed medium landholdings. The crops grown by these farmers include oil palm, maize, coconut, paddy, cocoa and vegetables. The majority of them had irrigated dry lands. All the farmers were aware about the reasons for the lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Areas where lockdown impact was visible on agriculture, either directly or indirectly, include labour availability, high cost of labour, harvesting, transport, and market prices. Resources affected due to lockdown were labour, fertilizers, harvesting, transport etc. All cultural practices were adopted in oil palm. The majority of the respondents perceived that oil palm was not affected compared to other crops during the lockdown; they opined to have obtained a good market price for oil palm during the lockdown period. Most of them informed that they received oil palm cultivation related messages sent by ICAR-IIOPR, Pedavegi. They perceived to be aware of the technologies during the lockdown period. Messages (SMS) on oil palm irrigation, cultivation practices, and fertigation were adopted. The need for Government assistance during the lockdown period was felt in the following aspects for different crops, viz., marketing, cultivation assistance, and transport. Farmers perceived that lockdown might have long-term implications due to the non-availability of labour for harvesting crops. It is evident from the study that crops affected severely during the lockdown period require long term strategies to mitigate the problems faced. Farmers must be supported with minimum support price (MSP), transport facilities and ad hoc strategies to sell their products through the government purchase mechanism. A need for monitoring the increase in the prices of agricultural inputs was also felt.

Kisan Assistant (Crop Price Prediction)

The Kisan assistant and harvest value forecast web application help ranchers, for crops that can be developed, the reference yield for each yield and compost suggestion for crops in view of soil test tried. Optional and micronutrients needed for soil are proposed to the rancher, E-Agri shopping will assist the rancher with purchasing better items for farming. The day-by-day live cost of harvests and yield value forecast will help the rancher for better yield promoting. The yield value forecast will anticipate the yield cost for the following a year which will assist ranchers with realizing the harvest cost at the collecting time or selling time.

The Effect of Target Log Length on Log Recovery and Harvesting Cost: The Example of Short-Rotation Poplar Plantations

Log production is the main target of new short-rotation poplar plantations, and their profitability depends on maximizing log yield. The authors set up a controlled experiment to determine the log yield increase obtained by shortening log length specification from 4 to 2 m, and to quantify the additional cost incurred by this change. The experiment indicated that reducing log length specifications allows a significant increase (+40%) in log yield in low-yielding (<25 BDT ha−1) plantations, only. Such increase is matched by a parallel increase in harvesting cost (+33%) that must be balanced against the recovered additional value. Measures are suggested to mitigate the harvesting cost increment, such as: dual log length specifications, modifications of the forwarder load bay and changing from cut-to-length to whole-tree harvesting.

An empirical financial analysis of integrating biomass procurement in sawtimber and pulpwood harvesting in eastern Canada

Integrating forest biomass procurement in wood procurement for conventional products is a potential means of reducing bioenergy system supply costs. We studied forest harvest operations to procure biomass in the form of trees and tree sections, along with sawtimber and pulpwood. We evaluated the cost-effectiveness of the supply chain with a particular focus on harvest costs and the potential silvicultural savings from a reduced need for site preparation and reforestation. We compared four wood procurement scenarios of increasing intensity (from harvesting only sawtimber to harvesting sawtimber, pulpwood and biomass for bioenergy) at three sites in eastern Canada. Wood procurement intensity did not affect feedstock unit costs (CAD·m−3). At the stand scale, procuring biomass for bioenergy had limited impact on harvest costs (CAD·ha−1) for low-density stands with large trees. In contrast, high-density stands with small trees generated more feedstock for bioenergy (up to 50 m3·ha−1), but biomass procurement increased harvest costs. The cost-effectiveness of the wood supply chain did not vary significantly along the wood procurement intensity gradient we studied when silvicultural savings are considered. The proportion of biomass harvested, stand characteristics, and market conditions proved to be important factors that influence wood procurement profitability.

The effects of random and seasonal environmental fluctuations on optimal harvesting and stocking.

We analyze the harvesting and stocking of a population that is affected by random and seasonal environmental fluctuations. The main novelty comes from having three layers of environmental fluctuations. The first layer is due to the environment switching at random times between different environmental states. This is similar to having sudden environmental changes or catastrophes. The second layer is due to seasonal variation, where there is a significant change in the dynamics between seasons. Finally, the third layer is due to the constant presence of environmental stochasticity-between the seasonal or random regime switches, the species is affected by fluctuations which can be modelled by white noise. This framework is more realistic because it can capture both significant random and deterministic environmental shifts as well as small and frequent fluctuations in abiotic factors. Our framework also allows for the price or cost of harvesting to change deterministically and stochastically, something that is more realistic from an economic point of view. The combined effects of seasonal and random fluctuations make it impossible to find the optimal harvesting-stocking strategy analytically. We get around this roadblock by developing rigorous numerical approximations and proving that they converge to the optimal harvesting-stocking strategy. We apply our methods to multiple population models and explore how prices, or costs, and environmental fluctuations influence the optimal harvesting-stocking strategy. We show that in many situations the optimal way of harvesting and stocking is not of threshold type.

(Retracted) Application of remote sensing image ecological land classification method in crop planting area extraction under the background of data fusion

Data mining is a common basic function in humans and many other intellectual systems. The popularization of computers has created a good research environment for the advanced application of remote sensing satellites. With China’s economic and population growth, the demand for food is also increasing. Obtaining the planting area is one of the most important tasks in calculating harvest costs. However, traditional cost analysis methods lack information. The traditional remote sensing image classification method is based on the pixel classification method, which cannot effectively extract the spatial texture information in an image. The pixel-based classification method also has the problem of salt and pepper phenomenon in the classification results, which generates a large number of invalid broken patches and ultimately leads to low classification accuracy. Here, we investigated the application of remote state system mapping for the extraction of the planting area. We analyzed the basic principles of remote image processing and remote image sharing methods and introduced an audio system and optical algorithm. Here, two separation methods are selected, long-distance traction measurements are performed in three training areas, and the two results are compared and analyzed. Experimental results show that the method of objective orientation increases the working speed compared with the method of manuscript translation. The benefit of speed measurement becomes more apparent in both seasons as the measuring range increases. Computer automatic classification and the method of artificial visual interpretation are tested sequentially, and the total time taken is 49 and 13.5 days, respectively.

Comparison of harvesting productivity, cost, and residual stand damages between single-tree selection thinning and mechanized line thinning using a small-scale grapple-saw

Considerable amounts of noncommercial materials generated from thinning treatments remain unattended on the site because the value of small-sized timber is lower than overall thinning operation costs in South Korea. In addition, thinning operations with conventional and mechanized harvesting systems often cause severe physical damage to residual trees. In this study, therefore, we compared and analyzed the harvesting productivity, cost, and residual stand damage between single-tree selection thinning (SST) and mechanized line thinning (MLT) systems on conifer plantation forests. For conventional SST, ground skidding (uphill/downhill) was performed using a tractor winch after manual felling and bucking. The MLT consisted of mechanized felling, downhill shovel logging, and processing with a small-scale grapple-saw for the fourth double row (MLT1) and the third row (MLT2) thinning section. The MLT system was more productive and cost-effective in performing thinning treatment and collecting thinning materials than SST. The MLT1 and MLT2 costs were 81.4% and 70.6% lower than the SST cost ($77.6/m3), respectively. The residual stand damages of the SST (3.4%) were lower than those of MLT1 (4.8%) and MLT2 (21.2%); however, there was no significant difference in residual stand damages between two thinning systems (p > 0.05). Therefore, forest managers should consider the use of MLT system to reduce thinning costs and efficiently produce thinning materials for their thinning operations. However, operators still need to be careful felling and extracting operations to reduce the residual stand damages for thinning treatments.

Comparative performance and technoeconomic analyses of two microalgae harvesting systems evaluated at a commercially relevant scale

Using a commercially scalable system designed for processing thousands of liters a day, here we evaluated the factors that affected the performance, energy consumption and capital/operating costs of both flocculation-based and filtration-based algal harvesting systems over a 16 month period. Coagulation efficiency was the primary driver of harvest efficiency in the flocculation-based method, while cell lysis was important for the filtration-based method. Culture (algae) age differentially influenced harvest efficiency through changes in cell fragility and stickiness. The average energy consumption of the flocculation-based method was 0.389 kWh/m3, while that for the filtration-based method was 4.343 kWh/m3. The average harvesting cost of the filtration-based method was 5.35 $/m3, while for flocculation-based method it was 4.52 $/m3. The concentration factor of filtration-based and flocculation-based method were 770–1086 and 407–448, respectively. For both harvesting methods, labor costs dominated and ranged from 55.84%–67.94% of total cost. Further system automation is a potential method to lower the harvesting cost. The filtration-based harvesting method could produce a better quality of algal biomass with higher concentration factors and less ash content, but needed more energy input, as compared with a flocculation-based method. This study highlights the importance of algal culture status to successful harvesting, and it also provides insight into developing more efficient harvesting technology with lower energy and capital cost.

THEORETICAL RESEARCH ON HARVEST QUALITY IMPROVEMENT OF ROOT CROPS AND POTATOES WITH A SEPARATING SYSTEM USING THE HEAT OF EXHAUST GASES

Improvement of technologies and development of appropriate technical means for cultivating all types of agricultural products is one of the energy-consuming segments of production. In addition, due to difference in biological characteristics of agricultural plants, energy costs for harvesting of surface and underground crops, the main representatives of which are mostly vegetable and some types of technical crops, prevail in favor of the latter. To improve the quality of sugar beet root harvesting in conditions of high moisture, it is proposed to use a separating system in the harvester design, which ensures energy efficiency of work with the possibility of simultaneous operations of digging, separating of root crops from soil and plant impurities and blowing of the separating surface with hot exhaust gases from the power plant of the harvesting machine. The aim of the study is to substantiate theoretically the technological and operational parameters of the separating system of harvesters using the heat of exhaust gases to improve the quality of root crop and potato harvesting in the conditions of high soil moisture. The object of the research is technological process carried out by the separating system of the harvester, which is represented by a cleaning star with installed deflectors for blowing on working surface of the separator with the exhaust gases of the power plant. Consistent patterns that allow to determine the design and technological parameters of the proposed separating system are presented. The results of the theoretical studies indicate the prospects for further experimental work to improve individual design elements of the proposed separating system.

Carrot Harvesting Methods: A Review

Carrot harvesting is one of the critical operations and is done once the carrot is matured after 90 – 110 days. Carrots grow on ridges and are harvested after loosening from the soil surface and pulling out roots by grasping the top. For harvesting carrots manually in one hectare, an average of 250 – 300 man-hours are required which is very expensive for farmers besides the quantum of labor, manual harvesting involves considerable drudgery and human discomfort. The experiment was conduct in 2021-22 at Junagadh agricultural university. During peak time sufficient labors are not available that delay the harvesting and thus result in damage and loss to crop. The harvesting operation of carrots needs to be mechanized for time-saving, reduce drudgery involved, and also reduce harvesting cost due to these, the crop is cultivated on small scale and is one of the main bottlenecks in bringing more area under the carrot cultivation. The large-scale diversification and reduction in the cost of cultivation in carrot crops are mainly possible through the mechanization of the carrot digging process. In this study considered parameters ware digging efficiency, damage percentage, picking efficiency, conveying efficiency and field efficiency. Parameters was statistically analyzed by factorial complete randomized design method.

Profitability and Determinants of Edible Insects Marketing in Oji-River and Udi Local Government Areas, Enugu State, Nigeria

The study examined the profitability and determinants of edible insects marketing and utilization in Oji-River and Udi Local Government Areas, Enugu State, Nigeria. Specifically, it described the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents, estimate the profitability of edible insect marketing and determined the influence of socio-economic characteristics of the respondents on net marketing income. Purposive sampling technique was used to select 120 respondents and data collection was on primary source using well structured questionnaire and were analyzed using descriptive statistics, enterprise budgeting, Shepherd-Futrell and multiple regression techniques. Finding on socioeconomic characteristics showed that majority of the marketers (35.83%) are within the age bracket of 41-50 years with mean age of 39% and there is female (80.83%) dominance in the enterprise. Profitability indicators such as; net marketing income (N,736,952.83), input cost (cost of harvesting and marketing) (N3,223,247.15), return on investment (N2.159), net return on investment (N1.15) and coefficient of marketing efficiency (0.463) proved the enterprise profitable. The implication of the net return on investment figures revealed that the marketers return N1.15 for every 1 naira invested in the business. Findings also indicated marketing efficiency level of 46.30%. It implies that the marketers are less efficient in marketing of edible insect. Age, gender, household size, other source of income and marketing cost significantly determined net marketing income realized by the edible insect marketers. However improvement in the marketing strategy which will benefit the harvesters/marketers and provision of modern storage and preservative facilities by the union and other relevant agencies for a longer period of time were recommended. Keywords: Profitability, determinants, marketing and edible insects.

Advances in the co-culture of microalgae with other microorganisms and applications

Intense utilization and mining of fossil fuels for energy production have resulted in environmental pollution and climate change. Compared to fossil fuels, microalgae is considered as a promising candidate for biodiesel production due to its fast growth rate, high lipid content and no occupying arable land. However, monocultural microalgae bear high cost of harvesting, and are prone to contamination, making them incompetent compared with traditional renewable energy sources. Co-culture system induces self-flocculation, which may reduce the cost of microalgae harvesting and the possibility of contamination. In addition, the productivity of lipid and high-value by-products are higher in co-culture system. Therefore, co-culture system represents an economic, energy saving, and efficient technology. This review aims to highlight the advances in the co-culture system, including the mechanisms of interactions between microalgae and other microorganisms, the factors affecting the lipid production of co-culture, and the potential applications of co-culture system. Finally, the prospects and challenges to algal co-culture systems were also discussed.

Effect of photoperiods and CO2 concentrations on the cultivation of carbohydrate-rich P. kessleri microalgae for the sustainable production of bioethanol

Biofuels production from microalgal biomass has been investigated as an alternative approach to replace conventional fossil fuels, contributing to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. However, several constraints such as high cultivation and harvesting costs are still limiting the techno-economic viability of microalgae-based biofuels. The integration of wastewater and CO2 streams shows strong potential for lowering the process costs as well as the environmental impacts of conventional microalgal culture systems.In this study, 25 microalgae strains were individually screened for their ability to survive and grow under various CO2 concentrations ranging from 0.04% to 100%. After selecting the most resistant strain, cultivation assays were performed in 3.5 L bubble columns reactors to investigate the effect of different light/dark cycles (4 h/20 h, 12 h/12 h and 20 h/4 h) and CO2 concentrations (0.04%, 2.5%, 5.0% and 10%) on the algal growth properties, the CO2 fixation efficiency as well as the microalgal biochemical composition.The cultivation of Parachlorella kessleri microalgae in the presence of 2.5% (v/v) of pig manure combined with 5% CO2 and light/dark cycle of 20 h/4 h generated the highest specific growth rate (0.58 d−1), biomass productivity (104 mg/L/d) and CO2 fixation rate (211 mgCO2/L/d). These culture conditions triggered the accumulation of carbohydrates in P. kessleri microalgae, resulting in the highest carbohydrate content and productivity of 44.2% and 46.1 mg/L/d, respectively. Subsequently, the carbohydrate-rich microalgal biomass was successfully used as feedstock to produce bioethanol using Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeasts.

A novel wastewater-derived cascading algal biorefinery route for complete valorization of the biomass to biodiesel and value-added bioproducts

Integration of multiproduct algal biorefineries with wastewater treatment systems could offer a sustainable approach to produce green products in a circular bioeconomy paradigm while keeping the water-energy-environment nexus sustainable. The present study demonstrated a novel biorefinery route employing a newly isolated self-flocculating microalga Chlamydomonas sp. BERC07. Here, the urban wastewater served as a low-cost growth media and improved biomass production (1.24 g/L) by 2-fold with concomitant removal of 100% total nitrogen, 94% total phosphorus, 56% COD, and 41% BOD. To lower the harvesting cost, an inducible sedimentation-based harvesting system was developed by employing the lowest dose of a commercial-grade flocculant, potash alum (0.27 kg/1000L culture) which improved the sedimentation rate of algal flocs by 240-fold with a biomass recovery efficiency of 96–98%. Later, the wastewater-derived biomass was subjected to downstream processing in a cascading fashion for its complete valorization. The biomass yielded 1.83 mg/g of carotenoids and 480 mg/g of lipids. The lipids were transesterified to produce biodiesel which completely met the preset European and American biodiesel quality standards. After carotenoids and lipids extraction, the residual biomass was fermented using Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus oryzae for the very first time. Interestingly, the A. oryzae outcompeted the A. niger and produced 131.6 U/mL of α-amylase along with 375–384 mg/g of mycoproteins utilizing 75–100 g/L of the residual algal biomass as a sole feedstock. All solvents involved in the product recovery were recycled to the primary wastewater, leaving no waste at the end of the processing pipeline. Overall, the data demonstrated a novel and sustainable biorefinery route with the most efficient harvesting and the complete valorization of the biomass, in a zero-waste approach. However, further upscaling, life cycle assessment, and technoeconomic analyses will be required to assess the economic and environmental sustainability of the proposed biorefinery route.

Legal Framework for the Sustainable Production of Short Rotation Coppice Biomass for Bioeconomy and Bioenergy

The production of lignocellulose biomass on dedicated plantations is an option that facilitates the implementation of sustainable development policy. The novelty of this type of research is that it involves the use of various types of methods—economic and legal analyses within a particular subject. This makes it possible to obtain a holistic view of the chosen case study. The purpose of this study was to determine whether setting up a Short Rotation Coppice (SRC) plantation of willow (Salix spp.) and poplar (Populus spp.) was economically profitable and if the legal regulations supported this type of production. The economic data are based on an experimental case study. The economic profitability of the plantations was assessed through an analysis of discounted cash flows, net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), and profitability index (PI). The legal analysis of the relevant EU and Polish legal solutions was based on a dogmatic approach. The study demonstrated that SRC cultivation was mostly hindered by economic factors, including the low selling price of biomass as an energy resource and the high costs of harvest. Meanwhile, in the analysed period, i.e., from 2015 to 2020, there were no additional legal or economic forms of support for this type of production that was addressed directly to lignocellulose biomass producers, with the exception of the standard support under the Common Agricultural Policy framework. The results of this study provide information for decisionmakers about the opportunities and challenges experienced during the development of SRC plantations.

Steep Slope Harvest System Models for Small to Large Trees

Background: Tethered cut-to-length and cable yarding systems with tethered falling equipment are increasingly used to harvest trees from slopes exceeding 30–60% more safely and at reduced financial cost than less mechanized harvest systems. Existing studies of harvest equipment typically isolate one or two pieces of equipment in a harvest system and often occur on sites with slopes below 50% and trees less than 60 cm in diameter. Methods: We analyzed machine capabilities and productivity regressions to extrapolate existing models to steep slope harvesting of trees up to 115 cm diameter. The resulting individual machine models are integrated into models of cut-to-length and long-log harvest system productivity. We estimated the financial operating costs of the harvest systems considered from equipment pricing and operator wages. Results: Analysis of even-age Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) rotations suggests eight-wheel forwarder productivity, swing yarder productivity, and mechanization of manual chainsaw labor with tethered harvesters as primary controls on harvest costs. Conclusions: The proposed model enables predictions across a greater range of slopes and tree sizes than those previously modeled, creating a foundation for future research into the cost and productivity of steep slope harvesting systems.

Sustainable microalgal biomass valorization to bioenergy: Key challenges and future perspectives

The global trend is shifting toward circular economy systems. It is a sustainable environmental approach that sustains economic growth from the use of resources while minimizing environmental impacts. The multiple industrial use of microalgal biomass has received great attention due to its high content of essential nutrients and elements. Nevertheless, low biomass productivity, unbalanced carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratio, resistant cellular constituents, and the high cost of microalgal harvesting represent the major obstacles for valorization of algal biomass. In recent years, microalgae biomass has been a candidate as a potential feedstock for different bioenergy generation processes with simultaneous treating wastewater and CO2 capture. An overview of the appealing features and needed advancements is urgently essential for microalgae-derived bioenergy generation. The present review provides a timely outlook and evaluation of biomethane production from microalgal biomass and related challenges. Moreover, the biogas recovery potential from microalgal biomass through different pretreatments and synergistic anaerobic co-digestion (AcoD) with other biowastes are evaluated. In addition, the removal of micropollutants and heavy metals by microalgal cells via adsorption and bioaccumulation in their biomass is discussed. Herein, a comprehensive review is presented about a successive high-throughput for anaerobic digestion (AD) of the microalgal biomass in order to achieve for sustainable energy source. Lastly, the valorization of the digestate from AD of microalgae for agricultural reuse is highlighted.

Machine learning-informed and synthetic biology-enabled semi-continuous algal cultivation to unleash renewable fuel productivity

Algal biofuel is regarded as one of the ultimate solutions for renewable energy, but its commercialization is hindered by growth limitations caused by mutual shading and high harvest costs. We overcome these challenges by advancing machine learning to inform the design of a semi-continuous algal cultivation (SAC) to sustain optimal cell growth and minimize mutual shading. An aggregation-based sedimentation (ABS) strategy is then designed to achieve low-cost biomass harvesting and economical SAC. The ABS is achieved by engineering a fast-growing strain, Synechococcus elongatus UTEX 2973, to produce limonene, which increases cyanobacterial cell surface hydrophobicity and enables efficient cell aggregation and sedimentation. SAC unleashes cyanobacterial growth potential with 0.1 g/L/hour biomass productivity and 0.2 mg/L/hour limonene productivity over a sustained period in photobioreactors. Scaling-up the SAC with an outdoor pond system achieves a biomass yield of 43.3 g/m2/day, bringing the minimum biomass selling price down to approximately $281 per ton.

Dynamics of Leaf-Litter Biomass, Nutrient Resorption Efficiency and Decomposition in a Moso Bamboo Forest After Strip Clearcutting.

Strip clearcutting can significantly reduce the harvesting costs of moso bamboo forests. Although bamboo is characterized by rapid accumulation of biomass, it is still a concern that this management method may reduce long-term productivity. Nutrient cycling has long been considered essential for forests to maintain high primary productivity. However, nutrient cycling of bamboo forests after strip cutting has not been previously reported. We conducted a strip clearcutting experiment and surveyed the litter dynamics for 1 year. We assessed changes in litter nutrients in response to the cutting and calculated the nutrient resorption efficiency and litter decomposition rate to evaluate the effect on nutrient use efficiency and nutrient return. Our results showed that strip cutting had no significant effect on litter production and nutrient return in the moso bamboo forest (p > 0.05). However, annual litter biomass and nutrient return in reserved belts (RB) were significantly higher than those in the control (CK) (p < 0.05). P and K resorption efficiencies in RB were significantly higher than in CK during certain periods of bamboo growth (p < 0.05). We also observed that the annual decay constant of CK was significantly higher than that of plots that were strip clearcut (SC) (p < 0.05). Our results suggest that strip cutting does not affect nutrient use efficiency or storage in the short term.

AGRICULTURE LAND AFFORESTATION WITH FAST-GROWING WOODY CROPS: ECONOMIC EVALUATION ACCORDING TO YIELDS OF PREVIOUS EXPERIMENTAL TRIALS

European Union (EU) aims to increase the share of renewable energy in total energy consumption in the next decades. The main renewable resource, which is mentioned in the policy documents, is biomass, especially wood biomass. Wood biomass for energy purposes could be successfully acquired from fast-growing woody plantations, growing on non-used agricultural lands. In Latvia, in 2019 were around 250 000 ha non-used agriculture land and part of it could be used for plantation growing. In Latvia, suitable woody species for use in plantations are willow, hybrid aspen, and grey alder. For economic calculations plantation site preparation before planting, planting, management, and biomass harvest costs were calculated, as well as revenues from selling biomass. In total 7 different plantation models were evaluated. Comparing the economic indicators for fast-growing woody crop plantation models during their cultivation and applying a discount rate of 7.63%, average service costs and product selling prices for the period 2015-2019, and under the existing plantation support system in 2021, intensively managed willow plantations, extensively managed willow plantations and hybrid aspen agroforestry plantations show positive accumulated cash flow. Hybrid aspen woody plantations and plantation forest, and grey alder energy wood and woody plantations show a negative accumulated cash flow, and their establishment in 2021 does not pay off. Factors that mostly affect plantation cash flow and therefore economic return are the biomass selling price and harvested biomass volume.