Harsh Parenting Research Articles

The Impact of Harsh Parenting on the Development of Obesity in Adulthood: An Examination of Epigenetic/Gene Expression Mediators Among African American Youth.

Objective: We examined the association of prospectively assessed harsh parenting during adolescence with body mass index (BMI) in young adulthood among African American youth. We also assessed the role of methylation of obesity-related genes and gene expression markers of obesity as mediators of this association, providing a pathway for the biological embedding of early harsh parenting and its long-term impact on young adult health.Methods: Hypotheses were tested with a sample of 362 African American youth for whom harsh parenting was assessed at ages 10–15, BMI was assessed at age 10 and 29, and both DNA methylation (DNAm) and gene expression of obesity genes were assessed at age 29. Mediational analyses were conducted using bootstrap methods to generate confidence intervals.Results: Controlling for genetic risk for obesity and health-related covariates, harsh parenting across childhood and adolescence was associated with change in BMI (Δ BMI) from ages 10–29. In addition, we found that the indirect effect of harsh parenting on Δ BMI was mediated through obesity-related DNAm and accounted for 45.3% of the total effect. Further, obesity-related DNAm mediated the effect of harsh parenting on gene expression of obesity-related genes (GEOG), and GEOG, in turn, mediated the impact of obesity-related DNAm on ΔBMI. This pathway accounted for 3.4% of the total effect. There were no gender differences in the magnitude of this indirect effect.Conclusions: The results suggest that alterations in methylation and gene expression mediate the impact of harsh parenting on change in obesity from childhood to young adulthood, illustrating plausible biological pathways from harsh parenting to obesity and bolstering the hypothesis that harsh parenting in childhood and adolescence can become biologically embedded and contribute to obesity.

Developmental Precursors of Primary and Secondary Callous-Unemotional Traits in Youth.

There is growing evidence of diverse etiological pathways to the development of callous-unemotional (CU) traits, known as primary and secondary CU variants. The purpose of the present study was to extend previous cross-sectional research and examine theoretical predictors of CU variants prospectively from childhood to adolescence. Participants included high-risk control and normative samples from the Fast Track project (N = 754, male = 58%, Black = 46%). Using structural equation modelling, primary CU traits, identified in early adolescence, were associated with higher levels of childhood emotion regulation and lower levels of prosocial behavior. Secondary CU traits were associated with lower levels of childhood emotion regulation and low parental warmth, but not prosocial behaviour. Neither CU variant was related to harsh parenting. Parental warmth moderated emotion regulation and prosocial behavior on secondary CU traits. Results were not moderated by sex. A greater understanding of theoretical developmental precursors of CU variants may better guide intervention efforts.

Paternal expressed emotion influences psychobiological indicators of threat and safety learning in daughters: A preliminary study.

This preliminary study examined the association of children's anxiety, paternal expressed emotion (EE), and their interaction with psychophysiological indices of children's threat and safety learning. Participants included 24 father-daughter dyads. Daughters (ages 8-13 years, 100% Latina) self-reported their anxiety levels and completed a differential threat conditioning and extinction paradigm, during which psychophysiological responding was collected. Fathers completed a Five-Minute Speech Sample, from which paternal EE (i.e., criticism, emotional overinvolvement) was assessed. Anxiety-dependent associations emerged between paternal EE and individual differences in daughters' psychophysiological responding to safety signals during threat conditioning. Paternal EE was positively associated with psychophysiological responding to safety in daughters with high and mean, but not low, levels of anxiety. Although previous work suggests that chronic harsh maternal parenting is a potential risk factor for children's general threat and safety learning, these preliminary findings implicate milder forms of negative parenting behavior in fathers, particularly for highly anxious children.

'No, you should not beat our child because he will become aggressive:' Applying a multi-method approach to explore intergenerational transmission of parenting practices.

BackgroundExploring the cultural context of intergenerational continuity of warm and harsh parenting informs parents motivations to adopt specific parenting behaviours.ObjectiveParents’ perceptions of being parented in the past and their current parenting as well as adolescents’ perceptions of current parenting were explored applying a multi-method approach.MethodsFollowing written informed consent, a total of 24 interviews with 10 families (dyads of 14 parents and ten adolescents) from Udupi taluk in southern India was conducted. In the first stage, in-depth interviews were conducted with parent participants (Generation 1 (G1)) and in the second stage, adolescents (Generation 2 (G2)) participated in the photovoice component. Multiple forms of data including photographs, journals and interviews facilitated using the SHOWeD model were collected and were analysed thematically using ATLAS.ti(v.8).ResultsSubtle changes in reinforcing culture-specific gender norms between generations were elicited. Differences in communication, granting autonomy to female adolescents, and in disciplining methods between G1 and G2 were observed. Warm parenting was transmitted between generations while harsh parenting in G1 in the presence of external social support was discarded in favor of warm parenting in G2.ConclusionWe provide evidence for perceptions of parenting and adolescent behaviors across two generations. Transmission of warm parenting and interruption in the cycle of harsh parenting in the presence of external social support were significant findings. Related theoretical and methodological applications are discussed.

Parents' distress and poor parenting during a COVID-19 lockdown: The buffering effects of partner support and cooperative coparenting.

The COVID-19 pandemic is placing demands on parents that may amplify the risk of parents' distress and poor parenting. Leveraging a prepandemic study in New Zealand, the current research tested whether parents' psychological distress during a mandated lockdown predicts relative residual changes in poorer parenting and whether partner support and cooperative coparenting buffer this potentially detrimental effect. Participants included 362 parents; 310 were from the same family (155 dyads). Parents had completed assessments of psychological distress and parenting prior to the pandemic and then reported on their distress, parenting, partner support, and cooperative coparenting during a nationwide COVID-19 lockdown. Parents' distress during the lockdown predicted relative residual increases in harsh parenting, but this effect was buffered by partner support. Parents' distress also predicted residual decreases in warm/responsive parenting and parent-child relationship quality, but these effects were buffered by cooperative coparenting. Partner support and cooperative coparenting are important targets for future research and interventions to help parents navigate challenging family contexts, including COVID-19 lockdowns. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Parenting and Sibling Relationships in Family with Disruptive Behavior Disorders. Are Non-Clinical Siblings More Vulnerable for Emotional and Behavioral Problems?

Disruptive Behavior Disorders (DBD) are the most common mental health disorders in the school-aged child population. Although harsh parenting is a key risk factor in the shaping of DBD, studies neglect the presence of siblings and differential parenting. This study aims to compare: (1) parenting style and sibling relationship in sibling dyads of clinical families, composed of a DBD child and a non-clinical sibling, with control families composed of two non-clinical siblings; (2) parenting style, sibling relationship, and emotional and behavioral problems in DBD child, non-clinical sibling, and non-clinical child of control group. Sixty-one families (composed of mother and sibling dyads), divided into clinical (n = 27) and control (n = 34) groups, completed the APQ, SRI, and CBCL questionnaires. Results indicated differential parenting in clinical families, compared to control group families, with higher negative parenting toward the DBD child than the sibling; no difference emerged in sibling relationship within sibling dyads (clinical vs. control). Finally, externalizing and internalizing problems were higher in DBD children and their siblings, compared to control, indicating DBD sibling psychopathology vulnerability. Findings suggest inclusion of siblings in the clinical assessment and rehabilitative intervention of DBD children, given that the promotion of positive parenting could improve mental health in the offspring.

The threat of coronavirus perceived by the mother and her experiences related to the pandemic versus her relationship with the child

Introduction: The COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus, has significantly changed people’s everyday lives, threatening the quality and even durability of intra-family relationships. The relationship between mother and child is particularly vulnerable to the disruptive impact of the pandemic. The article examines the relationship between mothers’ perceived threat of coronavirus and their pandemic experiences, and their relationships with their children. The analyses took into account the mediating role of parental stress and the following indicators of the mother-child relationship: mother’s perceived closeness with her child and mother-reported increase in the use of harsh parenting related to the pandemic. Method: The perceived threat of coronavirus and the pandemic experiences were assessed using scales based on the Coronavirus Experiences and Impacts Questionnaire (Conway, Woodard, & Zubrod, 2020). Parental stress was tested using the Polish version of The Parental Stress Scale (Berry & Jones, 1995), while the mother’s relationship with the child was measured using the Polish version of the scales developed by Chung, Lanier, and Wong (2020). The study involved 155 mothers who are in a relationship and have at least one child up to 12 years of age. Statistical analyses were performed using SEM structural equation modeling. Results: It was found that during the pandemic, mothers’ negative experiences related to the pandemic had a significant effect on mother-child relationships, which was associated with a greater increase in the use of harsh parenting as reported by mothers and a decrease in their perceived closeness with their children. This effect was mediated by parental stress. There was no significant correlation between the perceived threat of coronavirus and mother-child relations. Conclusions: The pandemic and the related difficult situations constitute a significant risk factor for child abuse and neglect in the group of mothers. This indicates the need to support mothers.

IMPACT OF PARENTING STYLE ON CHILD BEHAVIOR AND GUIDANCE STRATEGIES DURING THE DENTAL TREATMENT

Behaviour guidance could be challenge in modern paediatric dentistry. A child’s behaviour towards dental treatment varies according to different parenting styles. Authoritative parenting utilizes warmth and nurturance, while at the same time maintaining firm control of the child’s behavior. The authoritarian category is a harsh parenting style in which power-assertive techniques are utilized, including physical punishment, commands and yelling, while lacking warmth and communication. Permissive parents are characterized as having little control over their children while exhibiting great warmth toward them. Behavior guidance techniques are used to alleviate anxiety, nurture a positive dental attitude, and perform quality oral health care safely and efficiently for children. The aim of this paper was to study the influence of parenting style on the child`s behaviour and some factors influenced guidance strategies during the dental treatment.
 Forty-nine children aged between 3 and 6 years with caries and its complications were examined during this study. These subjects presented to the Community paediatric dental clinic in Poltava. The Primary Caregivers’ Practices Report (PCPR) used in this study to assess the level of parenting style (authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative). The parent was asked to rank each behaviour on a Likert scale of 1-5 (1=Never and 5=Always) as to how often they and their spouse/significant other (if applicable) exhibited each behaviour. The scoring key of the PCPR used to classify parents into one of the three specific parenting styles. Also a child`s behaviour was investigated based on Frankle`s scale.
 Behaviour guidance strategies during the dental treatment based on recommendations of AAPD. Impact of parenting style on a child`s positive behaviour is evaluated with the Chi-square test months. The level of significance was p<0.05.
 The dominant authoritarian style was not observed in parents; rate of forty-three parents (87,75%) categorized as predominantly authoritative was higher than rate of six permissive parents (22,25%) (p<0,0001). A half of children of permissive parents showed positive behaviour during dental treatment. Majority of children of authoritative parents demonstrated positive behaviour (67,44%), followed by permissive (32,56%). There was statistically significant difference (р<0,05) between parenting styles in positive behaviour.
 Strategies used for all children were «tell-show-do», distraction, enhancing control, positive reinforcement (gifts and toys). Voice control used in a case of local anaesthesia. Techniques used for children with negative behaviour were desensitization, parental absence, protective stabilization, and sedation. Enhancing control used to allow the patient with positive behaviour (3 score) to assume an active role in the dental experience; the dentist provides the patient a signal to use if he becomes uncomfortable.
 Parenting style and kind of dental aid (emergency or planned) have impact on choice of guidance strategy for children with negative behaviour. Authors started management of children of permissive parents with negative behaviour from parent absence, this strategy was successful in one case; desensitisation used if strategy was unsuccessful. 7 children with negative behaviour during the first visit got planned dental aid after psychological desensitisation next visit. Children exposed gradually through a series of sessions to components of the dental appointment: parents examined them at home and children made dental treatment with «Play-Doh Doctor drill and fill». This technique was effective in 6 children of authoritative parents and 1 patient of permissive parents.
 One child of permissive children and three children of authoritative children got emergency dental aid under sedation. Two children of authoritative parents who need emergency dental aid, have contraindications to general anaesthesia, therefore, protective stabilisation of the patients performed.
 Planned dental aid under sedation (3 children of authoritative parents), which is one of the methods of positive motivation for treatment, performed if other guidance strategies were unsuccessful.
 Thus, children of authoritative parents more often showed positive behaviour, whereas permissive parenting style had no impact on child`s behaviour during dental treatment. Choice of guidance strategy depends on the kind of dental aid (planned and emergency), parenting style and child`s behaviour during dental treatment.

Predictive Models of Maternal Harsh Parenting During COVID-19 in China, Italy, and Netherlands.

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic drastically impacted on family life and may have caused parental distress, which in turn may result in an overreliance on less effective parenting practices.Objective: The aim of the current study was to identify risk and protective factors associated with impaired parenting during the COVID-19 lockdown. Key factors predicting maternal harsh discipline were examined in China, Italy, and the Netherlands, using a cross-validation approach, with a particular focus on the role of allomaternal support from father and grandparents as a protective factor in predicting maternal harshness.Methods: The sample consisted of 900 Dutch, 641 Italian, and 922 Chinese mothers (age M = 36.74, SD = 5.58) who completed an online questionnaire during the lockdown.Results: Although marital conflict and psychopathology were shared risk factors predicting maternal harsh parenting in each of the three countries, cross-validation identified a unique risk factor model for each country. In the Netherlands and China, but not in Italy, work-related stressors were considered risk factors. In China, support from father and grandparents for mothers with a young child were protective factors.Conclusions: Our results indicate that the constellation of factors predicting maternal harshness during COVID-19 is not identical across countries, possibly due to cultural variations in support from fathers and grandparents. This information will be valuable for the identification of at-risk families during pandemics. Our findings show that shared childrearing can buffer against risks for harsh parenting during COVID-19. Hence, adopting approaches to build a pandemic-proof community of care may help at-risk parents during future pandemics.

Interaction Effects Between BDNF Gene rs6265 Polymorphism and Parental Harsh Discipline on Preschoolers’ Working Memory Performance

In the present study, muscle pain was induced experimentally in healthy subjects by administrating hypertonic saline injections into the tibialis anterior (TA) muscle. We first aimed at comparing the analgesic effects of mechanical vibration applied to either cutaneous or muscle receptors of the TA or to both types simultaneously. Secondly, pain alleviation was compared in subjects in whom muscle tendon vibration evoked kinesthetic illusions of the ankle joint. Muscle tendon vibration, which primarily activated muscle receptors, reduced pain intensity by 30% (p<0.01). In addition, tangential skin vibration reduced pain intensity by 33% (p<0.01), primarily by activating cutaneous receptors. Concurrently stimulating both sensory channels induced stronger analgesic effects (−51%, p<0.01), as shown by the lower levels of electrodermal activity. The strongest analgesic effects of the vibration-induced muscle inputs occurred when illusory movements were perceived (−38%, p=0.01). The results suggest that both cutaneous and muscle sensory feedback reduce muscle pain, most likely via segmental and supraspinal processes. Further clinical trials are needed to investigate these new methods of muscle pain relief.

Sensitive and Harsh Parenting of Infants: Associations with Maternal Depression, Generalized Anxiety, and Empathic Concern

Sensitive and Harsh Parenting of Infants: Associations with Maternal Depression, Generalized Anxiety, and Empathic Concern

Religiosity and spirituality among Filipino mothers and fathers: Relations to psychological well-being and parenting.

Religion is recognized as an influential social institution in the Philippines, yet religiosity and spirituality are rarely studied in the context of Filipino family and parent-child relationships. We examine the direct associations of religiosity and spirituality with the psychological well-being and parenting behaviors of 115 mothers and 83 fathers residing in urban neighborhoods in the Philippines. Participants completed orally administered questionnaires on engagement in religious activities, spiritual beliefs, hope, psychological distress, warmth, and harsh parenting. Analyses using structural equation modeling showed that engagement in religious activities was significantly associated with the higher levels of hope and less frequent harsh parenting. In addition, parental warmth had a stronger positive association with spiritual beliefs than with engagement in religious activities. Neither religious activity engagement nor spiritual beliefs were significantly associated with psychological distress. We discuss shared and distinct aspects of religiosity and spirituality that may explain their associations with positive parenting outcomes, and highlight the potential benefits of spiritual beliefs and experiences within the Filipino family context. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

1173The impact of adverse and positive experiences on inflammatory outcomes in Australian and UK children

Abstract Background Inflammation is one of key mechanisms linking childhood experiences to later chronic disease risk. Childhood adversity is associated with inflammation, but little is known about positive experiences. We examine how adverse and positive experiences are associated with inflammatory markers in late childhood, and whether they have an interaction effect. Methods Data sources: Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC; N = 1237) and Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC; N = 3488). Exposures: Adverse and positive experiences assessed from 0 to 11 (LSAC) and 0-14 years (ALSPAC). Adversity indicators included parent legal problems, family violence, mental illness, substance abuse, harsh parenting, parental divorce, neighbourhood violence, family member death, and bullying victimization. Positive experiences included positive parenting practice, trusting and supportive relationships, supportive neighbourhood and home learning environments, social engagement and enjoyment. Outcomes: Inflammation quantified by high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) and glycoprotein acetyls (GlycA). Analyses: Linear regression was used to estimate relative change in inflammatory markers, adjusted for sociodemographics. Outcomes were log-transformed. Results Exposure to adversity was associated with higher levels of inflammation (e.g., CRP: β = 8.8%, 95% CI= -16.5% to 34.2% in LSAC), whereas exposure to positive experiences was associated with lower levels (e.g., CRP: β=-18.9%, 95% CI= -45.8% to 7.9% in LSAC), after adjusting for sociodemographics. There was no interaction effect of adverse and positive experiences on inflammation. Conclusions Adverse and positive experiences have independent and small effects on children’s inflammation across two cohorts. Key messages Positive experiences are critical to inform interventions to improve inflammatory outcomes for children who face adversity.

The direct and indirect effects of parental trauma on child adjustment for resettled refugees in Australia

Purpose Understanding the effects trauma has on refugee parents and consequently, their children, is the first step in interrupting the intergenerational transmission of trauma. This study aims to investigate the impacts of parental exposure to trauma pre-settlement on parent and child reports of developmental difficulties as mediated by parental post-traumatic stress symptomology and harsh parenting. Design/methodology/approach The study included 414 refugee children (age M = 14.04, SD = 2.00; 48.3% female) and their caregivers (age M = 41.78, SD = 5.24, 77% female). The sample was drawn from the Building a New Life in Australia study, a large, representative cohort study of resettled refugees in Australia. Only data collected where both parents and their children could be matched were used in this study. Findings Results indicated that trauma was significantly associated with increased parental post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in all models and was negatively, albeit weakly, associated with lower levels of harsh parenting in the overall model which combined parent and child reports. Trauma also had a weak, positive indirect effect on developmental difficulties via parental PTSD in both the overall model and the model assessing parent-rated developmental difficulties. In all models, harsh parenting was associated with increased developmental difficulties, although harsh parenting did not act as a significant mediator of the effects of trauma or parental PTSD. Originality/value Results suggest that prior traumas had less of an adverse effect on parenting and child adjustment as was expected. Parenting, however, was strongly associated with poor child adjustment, indicating that this may be a key factor to encourage positive adjustment for refugee children.

The Predictive Effect of Parental Adult Attachment on Parent-Adolescent Attachment: The Mediating Role of Harsh Parenting.

This study examines the relationship between parental adult attachment and parent–adolescent attachment and investigates the mediating role of harsh parenting from the perspective of family systems theory. The sample included adolescents and their parents from 1,030 families in Henan Province, China. Measures included the Experiences in Close Relationships Scale, Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment Scale, and Harsh Parenting Scale. The results showed that paternal avoidance negatively predicts father–adolescent and mother–adolescent attachments, while maternal avoidance and maternal anxiety negatively predict father–adolescent attachment and mother–adolescent attachment, respectively. Paternal harsh parenting not only mediated the relationship between paternal adult and father–adolescent attachment but also between paternal adult and mother–adolescent attachment. However, maternal harsh parenting only plays an intermediary role between maternal adult and mother–adolescent attachment. The results of the study show that compared with the adverse effects of maternal adult attachment and maternal harsh parenting on parent–adolescent attachment, paternal avoidance and paternal harsh parenting more negatively affect parent–adolescent attachment, which is not conducive to familial harmony.

Parenting Styles, Coparenting, and Early Child Adjustment in Separated Families with Child Physical Custody Processes Ongoing in Family Court.

Coparenting conflict and triangulation after separation or divorce are associated with poorer child adjustment when parenting gatekeeping and conflict occur. Fewer studies reported psychosocial adjustment of children under three. We explored the effects of authoritarian and permissive parenting styles and negative coparenting on child adjustment in a purpose sample of 207 Portuguese newly separated/divorced parents (50.2% mothers/49.8% fathers) with sole or joint (49.8%/50.2%) physical custody processes ongoing in court. Parents filled out the Parenting Styles Questionnaire—Parents’ report, the Coparenting Questionnaire, and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Parenting and coparenting moderations path analysis to predict child adjustment were tested for two groups (2/3-year-old child/>3-year-old-child) and showed a good fit, followed by multigroup path analysis with similarities. Findings suggest harsh parenting and interparental conflict and triangulation as predictors for poor early child adjustment. The ongoing custody process could contribute to increased interparental conflict. The families’ unique functioning, parenting, and conflict should be considered in young children custody decisions made in a particularly stressful period when the parental responsibilities’ process is still ongoing and conflict may increase to serve the best interest of the child and promote healthy development. Future directions and practical implications are discussed.

Financial hardship, neighborhood cohesion and child externalizing behaviors: An extension of the family stress model among immigrant mothers

Research indicates heightened risk for financial, psychological, and emotional strain among immigrant families. Studies that examine the family stress model in concert with unique stressors associated with immigrant adjustment, such as community integration, are limited. Using a longitudinal framework, this study applied the family stress model on a sample of first-generation immigrant mothers (N = 831) to examine whether financial hardship and neighborhood cohesion impacted children’s externalizing behaviors via maternal depression and harsh parenting. Data came from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. Financial hardship (OR = 1.36, p < .001) and neighborhood cohesion (OR = 0.65, p = .004) both predicted maternal depression. Maternal depression was not associated with harsh parenting (OR = 2.05, p = .259). Harsh parenting was not associated with child externalizing behaviors (b = 0.04, SE = 0.02, p = .363).Financial hardship (indirect effect: b = 0.22, SE = 0.06, p < .001) and neighborhood cohesion (indirect effect: b = -0.18, SE = 0.07, p = .007) predicted child externalizing behaviors via maternal depression. Findings suggest that interventions need to address economic, social environments, and parental mental health in efforts to reduce risk of developing problem behaviors among children of immigrants.

Relationships heal: Reducing harsh parenting and child abuse potential with relationship-based parent-infant home visiting

BackgroundChildhood maltreatment and harsh parenting can have lasting effects on young children’s development, and home visiting interventions provide critical opportunities to mitigate this risk. ObjectiveThis study aimed to examine associations between participation in the Michigan Model of Infant Mental Health Home Visiting (IMH-HV) and both harsh parenting and child abuse potential. Participants and SettingParticipants were 76 mothers and their infants/toddlers (M age = 9.9 months at baseline) receiving IMH-HV with Community Mental Health Service Provider agencies in Michigan. MethodsData were collected at baseline (shortly after initiation of services), and 3, 6, 9, and 12 months post baseline assessment. Mothers provided demographic information and completed several questionnaire measures including the Brief Child Abuse Potential Inventory (BCAP). Harsh parenting was rated by a trained research assistant using subscales from the Home Observation of Measurement of the Environment (HOME). Treatment dosage was collected from IMH-HV clinicians. ResultsMothers with higher numbers of IMH-HV visits showed lower levels of observed harsh parenting over the three time points in the study (estimate = 0.050, p = 0.002) and higher cumulative societal factors associated with oppression (SFAO) predicted higher harsh parenting over the three time points. A higher number of IMH-HV visits also predicted lower child abuse potential across the time points of the study (estimate = −0.78, p = 0.043), controlling for SFAO. ConclusionsParticipation in the Michigan Model of IMH-HV, delivered in the community, is associated with reductions in both harsh parenting and child abuse potential.

Associations between early life harshness, parents' parenting style, and relationship quality in China

AbstractPrevious studies revealed that early life stress is associated with romantic relationship quality in the life history perspective in Western nations. The current study examined the relationships between life history strategy, early life harshness/parents' parenting style, and romantic relationship quality, as well as life history strategy as a mediator in the association between early life harshness/parents' parenting style and relationship quality in China. A total of 263 individuals in romantic relationships participated in a questionnaire survey. Results revealed the direct effects of early life harshness/parents' parenting style and relationship quality. Both early life harshness and parents' parenting style have indirect effects on relationship quality through the life history strategy → communication/commitment paths. Thus, individuals with childhood adverse experiences and harsh parents' parenting style were more inclined to adopt a fast life history strategy, which was negatively associated with relationship quality.

Three-variable systems: An integrative moderation and mediation framework for developmental psychopathology.

In this article, we consider an often overlooked model that combines mediation and moderation to explain how a third variable can relate to a risk factor-psychopathology relationship. We refer to it as moderation and mediation in a three-variable system. We describe how this model is relevant to studying vulnerability factors and how it may advance developmental psychopathology research. To illustrate the value of this approach, we provide several examples where this model may be applicable, such as the relationships among parental externalizing pathology, harsh parenting, and offspring psychopathology as well as between neuroticism, stressful life events, and depression. We discuss possible reasons why this model has not gained traction and attempt to clarify and dispel those concerns. We provide guidance and recommendations for when to consider this model for a given data set and point toward existing resources for testing this model that have been developed by statisticians and other methodologists. Lastly, we describe important caveats, limitations, and considerations for making this approach most useful for developmental research. Overall, our goal in presenting this information to developmental psychopathology researchers is to encourage testing moderation and mediation in a three-variable system with the aim of advancing analytic strategies for studying vulnerability factors.