Harmonized Landsat And Sentinel-2 Research Articles

Comparison of change-based and shape-based data fusion methods in fine-resolution land surface phenology monitoring with Landsat and Sentinel-2 data

Fine-resolution land surface phenology (LSP) is urgently required for applications on agriculture management and vegetation-climate interaction, especially over heterogeneous areas, such as agricultural lands and fragmented forests. The critical challenge of fine-resolution LSP monitoring is how to reconstruct the spatiotemporal continuous vegetation index time series. To solve this problem, various data fusion methods have been devised; however, the comprehensive inter-comparison is lacking across different spatial heterogeneity, data quality, and vegetation types. We divide these methods into two main categories: the change-based methods fusing satellite observations with different spatiotemporal resolutions, and the shape-based methods fusing prior knowledge of shape models and satellite observations. We selected four methods to rebuilt two-band enhanced vegetation index (EVI2) series based on the harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 (HLS) data, including two change-based methods, namely the Spatial and temporal Adaptive Reflectance Fusion Model (STARFM), the Flexible Spatiotemporal DAta Fusion (FSDAF), and two shape-based methods, namely the Multiple-year Weighting Shape-Matching (MWSM), and the Spatiotemporal Shape-Matching Model (SSMM). Four phenological transition dates were extracted, evaluated with PhenoCam observations and the 500 m Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) phenology product. The 30 m transition dates show more spatial details and reveal more apparent intra-class and inter-class phenology variation compared with 500 m product. The four transition dates of SSMM and FSDAF (R2>0.74, MAD<15 days) show better agreement with PhenoCam-derived dates. The performance difference between fusion methods over various application scenarios are then analyzed. Fusion results are more robust when temporal frequency is higher than 15 observations per year. The shape-based methods are less sensitive to temporal sampling irregularity than change-based methods. Both change-based methods and shape-based methods cannot perform well when the region is heterogeneous. Among different vegetation types, SSMM-like methods have the highest overall accuracy. The findings in this paper can provide references for regional and global fine-resolution phenology monitoring.

Integrating NDVI-Based Within-Wetland Vegetation Classification in a Land Surface Model Improves Methane Emission Estimations

Earth system models (ESMs) are a common tool for estimating local and global greenhouse gas emissions under current and projected future conditions. Efforts are underway to expand the representation of wetlands in the Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SM) Land Model (ELM) by resolving the simultaneous contributions to greenhouse gas fluxes from multiple, different, sub-grid-scale patch-types, representing different eco-hydrological patches within a wetland. However, for this effort to be effective, it should be coupled with the detection and mapping of within-wetland eco-hydrological patches in real-world wetlands, providing models with corresponding information about vegetation cover. In this short communication, we describe the application of a recently developed NDVI-based method for within-wetland vegetation classification on a coastal wetland in Louisiana and the use of the resulting yearly vegetation cover as input for ELM simulations. Processed Harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 (HLS) datasets were used to drive the sub-grid composition of simulated wetland vegetation each year, thus tracking the spatial heterogeneity of wetlands at sufficient spatial and temporal resolutions and providing necessary input for improving the estimation of methane emissions from wetlands. Our results show that including NDVI-based classification in an ELM reduced the uncertainty in predicted methane flux by decreasing the model’s RMSE when compared to Eddy Covariance measurements, while a minimal bias was introduced due to the resampling technique involved in processing HLS data. Our study shows promising results in integrating the remote sensing-based classification of within-wetland vegetation cover into earth system models, while improving their performances toward more accurate predictions of important greenhouse gas emissions.

HP-LSP: A reference of land surface phenology from fused Harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 with PhenoCam data

Land surface phenology (LSP) products are currently of large uncertainties due to cloud contaminations and other impacts in temporal satellite observations and they have been poorly validated because of the lack of spatially comparable ground measurements. This study provided a reference dataset of gap-free time series and phenological dates by fusing the Harmonized Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2 (HLS) observations with near-surface PhenoCam time series for 78 regions of 10 × 10 km2 across ecosystems in North America during 2019 and 2020. The HLS-PhenoCam LSP (HP-LSP) reference dataset at 30 m pixels is composed of: (1) 3-day synthetic gap-free EVI2 (two-band Enhanced Vegetation Index) time series that are physically meaningful to monitor the vegetation development across heterogeneous levels, train models (e.g., machine learning) for land surface mapping, and extract phenometrics from various methods; and (2) four key phenological dates (accuracy ≤5 days) that are spatially continuous and scalable, which are applicable to validate various satellite-based phenology products (e.g., global MODIS/VIIRS LSP), develop phenological models, and analyze climate impacts on terrestrial ecosystems.

Developing an operational algorithm for near-real-time monitoring of crop progress at field scales by fusing harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 time series with geostationary satellite observations

Crop phenology has been widely detected from multiple historical satellite observations. Conversely, Near-Real-Time (NRT) monitoring of crop progress from timely available remote sensing data is barely investigated because of the lack of high-frequency cloud-free satellite observations and future potential crop development. To address the challenge, this study proposes a novel algorithm for operational NRT monitoring of crop progress at the field scale. This algorithm first fuses the high spatial resolution (30 m) Harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 (HLS) data and the high temporal frequent (10 min) Advanced Baseline Imager (ABI) observations to generate cloud-free time series of HLS-ABI EVI2 (two-band Enhanced Vegetation Index) with a Spatiotemporal Shape-Matching Model (SSMM). It then predicts future potential EVI2 values at a given pixel using a reference EVI2 time series obtained from the neighboring pixels in the preceding year. Integrating the currently available HLS-ABI observations and the predicted future EVI2 values to generate annual EVI2 time series, the algorithm finally detects six crop phenometrics including greenup onset, mid-greenup phase, maturity onset, senescence onset, mid-senescence phase, and dormancy onset. The NRT monitoring, which are separated as near-real-time prediction (phenological event detected after the occurrence), real-time prediction (phenological event detected around the occurrence), and short-term prediction (phenological event detected before the occurrence), are continuously updated and improved with new HLS and ABI observations at a weekly basis throughout the growing season. We evaluate the NRT monitoring against standard phenology products, PhenoCam observations, as well as the weekly Crop Progress Reports (CPRs) released from the National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) in 2020 across Iowa. The evaluation demonstrates the robustness of the developed algorithm in NRT monitoring of crop phenology. Although the uncertainties are relatively large for short-term prediction compared with standard detections, the real-time prediction shows that the Mean Absolute Difference (MAD) is <10 days for greenup and dormancy onset, and ∼ 5 days in the other four phenometrics. Further, the real-time prediction aligns well with PhenoCam observations (R2 = 0.96, P < 0.001) with a MAD of 7.8 days. Moreover, the HLS-ABI real-time prediction of crop phenometrics is capable of tracking NASS crop progress closely with small time shifts (≤ 5 days) and significant correlations (R2 > 0.85, P < 0.001) for various phenological stages of corn and soybean. These results prove that the algorithm could be implemented for NRT monitoring of various crop phenometrics from field, state, to national scales.

A phenology-based vegetation index for improving ratoon rice mapping using harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 data

Ratoon rice, which refers to a second harvest of rice obtained from the regenerated tillers originating from the stubble of the first harvested crop, plays an important role in both food security and agroecology while requiring minimal agricultural inputs. However, accurately identifying ratoon rice crops is challenging due to the similarity of its spectral features with other rice cropping systems (e.g., double rice). Moreover, images with a high spatiotemporal resolution are essential since ratoon rice is generally cultivated in fragmented croplands within regions that frequently exhibit cloudy and rainy weather. In this study, taking Qichun County in Hubei Province, China as an example, we developed a new phenology-based ratoon rice vegetation index (PRVI) for the purpose of ratoon rice mapping at a 30 m spatial resolution using a robust time series generated from Harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 (HLS) images. The PRVI that incorporated the red, near-infrared, and shortwave infrared 1 bands was developed based on the analysis of spectro-phenological separability and feature selection. Based on actual field samples, the performance of the PRVI for ratoon rice mapping was carefully evaluated by comparing it to several vegetation indices, including normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), enhanced vegetation index (EVI) and land surface water index (LSWI). The results suggested that the PRVI could sufficiently capture the specific characteristics of ratoon rice, leading to a favorable separability between ratoon rice and other land cover types. Furthermore, the PRVI showed the best performance for identifying ratoon rice in the phenological phases characterized by grain filling and harvesting to tillering of the ratoon crop (GHS-TS2), indicating that only several images are required to obtain an accurate ratoon rice map. Finally, the PRVI performed better than NDVI, EVI, LSWI and their combination at the GHS-TS2 stages, with producer’s accuracy and user’s accuracy of 92.22 and 89.30%, respectively. These results demonstrate that the proposed PRVI based on HLS data can effectively identify ratoon rice in fragmented croplands at crucial phenological stages, which is promising for identifying the earliest timing of ratoon rice planting and can provide a fundamental dataset for crop management activities.

Mapping Diverse Paddy Rice Cropping Patterns in South China Using Harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 Data

Paddy rice cropping patterns (PRCPs) play important roles in both agroecosystem modeling and food security. Although paddy rice maps have been generated over several regions using satellite observations, few studies have focused on mapping diverse smallholder PRCPs, which include crop rotation and are dominant cropping structures in South China. Here, an approach called the feature selection and hierarchical classification (FSHC) method was proposed to effectively identify paddy rice and its rotation types. Considering the cloudy and rainy weather in South China, a harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 (HLS) surface reflectance product was employed to increase high-quality observations. The FSHC method consists of three processes: cropping intensity mapping, feature selection, and decision tree (DT) model development. The FSHC performance was carefully evaluated using crop field samples obtained in 2018 and 2019. Results suggested that the derived cropping intensity map based on the Savitzky–Golay (S-G) filtered normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) time series was reliable, with an overall accuracy greater than 93%. Additionally, the optimal spectral (i.e., normalized difference water index (NDWI) and land surface water index (LSWI)) and temporal (start-of-season (SOS) date) features for distinguishing different PRCPs were successfully identified, and these features are highly related to the critical growth stage of paddy rice. The developed DT model with three hierarchical levels based on optimal features performed satisfactorily, and the identification accuracy of each PRCP can be achieved approximately 85%. Furthermore, the FSHC method exhibited similar performances when mapping PRCPs in adjacent years. These results demonstrate that the proposed FSHC approach with HLS data can accurately extract diverse PRCPs over fragmented croplands; thus, this approach represents a promising opportunity for generating refined crop type maps.

Near real-time detection of winter cover crop termination using harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 (HLS) to support ecosystem assessment

Cover crops are planted to reduce soil erosion, increase soil fertility, and improve watershed management. In the Delmarva Peninsula of the eastern United States, winter cover crops are essential for reducing nutrient and sediment losses from farmland. Cost-share programs have been created to incentivize cover crops to achieve conservation objectives. This program required that cover crops be planted and terminated within a specified time window. Usually, farmers report cover crop termination dates for each enrolled field (∼28,000 per year), and conservation district staff confirm the report with field visits within two weeks of termination. This verification process is labor-intensive and time-consuming and became restricted in 2020–2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This study used Harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 (HLS, version 2.0) time-series data and the within-season termination (WIST) algorithm to detect cover crop termination dates over Maryland and the Delmarva Peninsula. The estimated remote sensing termination dates were compared to roadside surveys and to farmer-reported termination dates from the Maryland Department of Agriculture database for the 2020–2021 cover crop season. The results show that the WIST algorithm using HLS detected 94% of terminations (statuses) for the enrolled fields (n = 28,190). Among the detected terminations, about 49%, 72%, 84%, and 90% of remote sensing detected termination dates were within one, two, three, and four weeks of agreement to farmer-reported dates, respectively. A real-time simulation showed that the termination dates could be detected one week after termination operation using routinely available HLS data, and termination dates detected after mid-May are more reliable than those from early spring when the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was low. We conclude that HLS imagery and the WIST algorithm provide a fast and consistent approach for generating near-real-time cover crop termination maps over large areas, which can be used to support cost-share program verification.

Cross-scale sensing of field-level crop residue cover: Integrating field photos, airborne hyperspectral imaging, and satellite data

Conservation tillage practices can bring benefits to agricultural sustainability. Accurate spatial and temporal resolved information of field-scale crop residue cover, which reflects tillage intensity, is highly valuable for evaluating the outcomes of government conservation programs and voluntary ecosystem service markets, as well as facilitating agroecosystem modeling to quantify cropland biogeochemical processes. Remote sensing has the potential to cost-effectively detect crop residue cover, however, existing regional-scale studies were limited by insufficient ground truth data, scale mismatch between coarse satellite pixels and ground data, and the lack of key spectral data for detecting crop residues. Therefore, this study developed an innovative cross-sensing framework to integrate proximal sensing, airborne hyperspectral imaging, and satellite Earth Observation through deep learning to quantify field-level crop residue cover fractions at the regional scale. Specifically, we have collected intensive ground orthographic photos and conducted airborne hyperspectral surveys at corn and soybean fields of Champaign and nearby counties in Illinois, the heartland of the U.S. Corn Belt. Through semi-automatic labeling aided by ResNet-50 and superpixel image segmentation, we obtained 6719 records of ground residue fractions. With these ground data, we developed the 1-dimensional convolution neural network (CNN) model using airborne hyperspectral reflectance, which has 0.5 m spatial resolution and 3–5 nm spectral resolution from 400 to 2400 nm, to predict residue fractions. By applying the CNN model to airborne pixels, we augmented “ground truth” data of crop residues and further combined them with Harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 (HLS) satellite data to quantify regional residue fractions at 30 m resolution. Results show that airborne hyperspectral imagery with CNN can accurately detect residue fractions (R2 = 0.82, relative RMSE = 11.73%) to effectively generate quasi “ground truth” data to support satellite upscaling to all fields. With independent ground data for testing, we found that the ground-airborne-satellite integrative framework achieved better predictions in estimating crop residue cover (R2 = 0.67, relative RMSE = 17.53%) than the conventional ground-satellite upscaling (R2 = 0.22, relative RMSE = 32.09%). We also found that the shortwave infrared wavelengths, particularly 2100–2300 nm, are vital for predicting crop residue cover. Sentinel-2 and Landsat-8 data have a comparable capability to track residue fractions due to similar shortwave infrared wavelengths. This study highlights the high accuracy of hyperspectral imaging to detect agroecosystem tillage management practices and the advantages of cross-scale sensing to cost-effectively integrate multi-source data to quantify field-level agroecosystem variables across scales.

A novel algorithm for the generation of gap-free time series by fusing harmonized Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2 observations with PhenoCam time series for detecting land surface phenology

Vegetation phenology is one of the most sensitive indicators to environmental and climate changes. In order to characterize the seasonal variation in relatively pure or homogenous vegetation types, fine spatial resolution satellite data (≤ 30 m), such as Landsat, Sentinel-2, PlanetScope, or Harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 (HLS), have been increasingly applied to detect land surface phenology (LSP). However, the most critical challenge in LSP detections is the gaps in temporal satellite observations caused by noise and persistent cloud/snow cover. Therefore, this study presented a novel algorithm for generating synthetic gap-free time series at the field scale (30 m) for LSP detections. Specifically, we first developed a framework to establish a large collection of temporal shapes of vegetation growth with as many as 100 grid-based Green Chromatic Coordinate (GCC) time series in a single PhenoCam site. For a given HLS pixel, the two-band Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI2) time series was matched and fused with the most comparable temporal GCC shape selected from the collection of PhenoCam GCC time series to generate a synthetic gap-free HLS-PhenoCam EVI2 time series, which was used to detect the 30 m phenometrics. The detected phenometrics were evaluated using manually selected and spatially matched GCC observations as well as phenology detections from HLS alone. The result indicates that the HLS-PhenoCam phenometrics are very close to the observations from PhenoCam network with a correlation coefficient (R) of 0.82–0.97, a mean absolute difference (MAD) of 2.8–3.5 days, a root mean squared error (RMSE) of 3.5–4.0 days, and a mean systematic bias (MSB) of 0.1–2.2 days. The HLS-PhenoCam detections are significantly improved relative to the HLS phenometrics that have a statistic accuracy of R = 0.57–0.78, MAD = 6.4–9.3 days, RMSE = 8.8–13.9 days, MSB = -5.2–5.9 days. The difference between HLS-PhenoCam and HLS alone LSP detections over a HLS tile could be on average larger than two weeks if high-quality observation (HQO) proportion in the annual HLS time series is <10%, which exponentially reduces with the increase of HQO in HLS observations. The analyses in this study suggest that the gap-free HLS-PhenoCam time series is able to be generated for producing high-quality phenology datasets across a local and regional scale, to bridge near-surface PhenoCam observations with satellite observations data at various scales, and to be used as a scalable phenology dataset for the validation of global MODIS and VIIRS LSP products.

Phenological normalization can improve in-season classification of maize and soybean: A case study in the central US Corn Belt

Within-season estimates of crop-specific planted area, conditions, and expected yields are critical for decision- and policy-making related to agriculture and food security. However, these estimates require in-season crop type maps which are not currently widely available. Machine learning and remote sensing data can be used to create crop type maps that provide crop-specific land cover classifications to enable timely analysis at field scales throughout the growing season to complement traditional reporting efforts. However, existing methods are often limited by lower performance on test data from seasons with different patterns not seen during training and inability to provide classifications during the growing season when most operationally relevant. We present a new approach to in-season crop type mapping that addresses inter-annual domain shift by normalizing satellite observations by land surface phenology stage. These phenology-normalized observations are input to a neural network that extracts temporal and spatial features using both recurrent and convolutional layers respectively. Using Harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 (HLS) and Sentinel-1 SAR observations with test data from the U.S. states of Iowa in 2019 (late planting year) and Illinois in 2020 (standard year), we showed that this method enabled good performance in both scenarios throughout the growing season (71% and 72% in early-season, 80% and 84% in mid-season, 81% and 85% in late-season for Iowa 2019 and Illinois 2020 respectively).

Harmonizing surface reflectance between Landsat-7 ETM + , Landsat-8 OLI, and Sentinel-2 MSI over China.

Remote sensing dynamic monitoring methods often benefit from a dense time series of observations. To enhance these time series, it is sometimes necessary to integrate data from multiple satellite systems. In particular, the Landsat and Sentinel series provide a rich source of data for Earth observations. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) scientists proposed a method that creates global fixed per-band transformation coefficients to reduce the reflectance difference between Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 for the harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 (HLS) surface reflectance product. However, the coefficient has yet to be further validated in the target study area and the coefficient can only be used for Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2, and is not useful for other sensors. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the potential of integrating surface reflectance data from Landsat-7, Landsat-8, and Sentinel-2. Some differences in the surface reflectance of the sensor pairs were identified, based upon which a cross-sensor conversion model was proposed, i.e., a suitable adjustment equation was fitted using an ordinary least squares (OLS) linear regression method to convert the Sentinel-2 reflectance values closer to the Landsat-7 or Landsat-8 values. The results show that the model adjusted the Sentinel-2 surface reflectance to match Landsat-7 or Landsat-8. The maximum MRE of the adjusted sensor for surface reflectance was reduced from 17.96 to 12.15%. Differences in reflectance produce corresponding differences in estimates of biophysical quantities, such as NDVI, with MRE as high as 18.33%. However, adjusting the Sentinel-2 sensor was able to reduce this part of the discrepancy to about 12.56%. The study believes that despite the differences in these datasets, it appears feasible to integrate these datasets by applying a linear regression correction between the bands.

Mapping corn and soybean phenometrics at field scales over the United States Corn Belt by fusing time series of Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2 data with VIIRS data

Accurate and timely crop phenology is essential for efficient crop management and precise modelling of crop yield and productivity. It has been commonly mapped from moderate or coarse resolution (≥500 m) satellite data at a national or global scale, which generally represents the mixture of multiple crops or between crops and natural vegetation. Crop phenological progress at field scales (≤30 m) is critical for monitoring the growth of specie-specific crop types, but it is very challenging at large scales because of limited cloud-free observations in the satellite time series. To map corn and soybean phenometrics at a field scale (30 m) over entire Corn Belt in the United States, this study for the first time develops a new approach that fuses high temporal resolution Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) observations (500 m) and high spatial resolution Harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 (HLS) data (30 m). The fused HLS-VIIRS time series (daily 30 m) is applied to map crop phenometrics of greenup onset, mid-greenup phase, maturity onset, senescence onset, mid-senescence phase, and dormancy onset. These six phenometrics are correlated to crop progress (CP) of seven corn and six soybean growth stages from planting to harvest that are observed by the National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and are further validated using PhenoCam near-surface time series imagery. The result indicates that the HLS-VIIRS crop phenometrics are capable of tracking the CP very well. Although their biophysical definitions of CP stages and sample coverage were not the same in our comparisons, the HLS-VIIRS crop phenometrics and NASS CP at a state level are closely comparable with a difference<4 days for corn and soybean emergence, 1 day for soybean dropping leaves, and 6–10 days for other corn and soybean growth stages. Their significant correlations (R2 ranging from 0.81 to 0.99, p < 0.01) suggest that the HLS-VIIRS crop phenometrics are robust proxies for predicting NASS CP with a high accuracy. Moreover, the HLS-VIIRS phenometrics aligns closely with PhenoCam phenological timings at various crop growth stages with an absolute average difference from 3 days to 5.3 days and bias from 1.5 to 3.5 days. The result demonstrates that the proposed approach could be implemented for monitoring field scale crop progress at a national or global scale.

Towards Routine Mapping of Crop Emergence within the Season Using the Harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 Dataset

Crop emergence is a critical stage for crop development modeling, crop condition monitoring, and biomass accumulation estimation. Green-up dates (or the start of the season) detected from remote sensing time series are related to, but generally lag, crop emergence dates. In this paper, we refine the within-season emergence (WISE) algorithm and extend application to five Corn Belt states (Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, and Nebraska) using routine harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 (HLS) data from 2018 to 2020. Green-up dates detected from the HLS time series were assessed using field observations and near-surface measurements from PhenoCams. Statistical descriptions of green-up dates for corn and soybeans were generated and compared to county-level planting dates and district- to state-level crop emergence dates reported by the National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS). Results show that emergence dates for corn and soybean can be reliably detected within the season using the HLS time series acquired during the early growing season. Compared to observed crop emergence dates, green-up dates from HLS using WISE were ~3 days later at the field scale (30-m). The mean absolute difference (MAD) was ~7 days and the root mean square error (RMSE) was ~9 days. At the state level, the mean differences between median HLS green-up date and median crop emergence date were within 2 days for 2018–2020. At this scale, MAD was within 4 days, and RMSE was less than 5 days for both corn and soybeans. The R-squares were 0.73 and 0.87 for corn and soybean, respectively. The 2019 late emergence of crops in Corn Belt states (1–4 weeks to five-year average) was captured by HLS green-up date retrievals. This study demonstrates that routine within-season mapping of crop emergence/green-up at the field scale is practicable over large regions using operational satellite data. The green-up map derived from HLS during the growing season provides valuable information on spatial and temporal variability in crop emergence that can be used for crop monitoring and refining agricultural statistics used in broad-scale modeling efforts.

Fusing Geostationary Satellite Observations with Harmonized Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 Time Series for Monitoring Field-Scale Land Surface Phenology

Accurate and timely land surface phenology (LSP) provides essential information for investigating the responses of terrestrial ecosystems to climate changes and quantifying carbon and surface energy cycles on the Earth. LSP has been widely investigated using daily Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) or Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) observations, but the resultant phenometrics are frequently influenced by surface heterogeneity and persistent cloud contamination in the time series observations. Recently, LSP has been derived from Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 time series providing detailed spatial pattern, but the results are of high uncertainties because of poor temporal resolution. With the availability of data from Advanced Baseline Imager (ABI) onboard a new generation of geostationary satellites that observe the earth every 10–15 min, daily cloud-free time series could be obtained with high opportunities. Therefore, this study investigates the generation of synthetic high spatiotemporal resolution time series by fusing the harmonized Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 (HLS) time series with the temporal shape of ABI data for monitoring field-scale (30 m) LSP. The algorithm is verified by detecting the timings of greenup and senescence onsets around north Wisconsin/Michigan states, United States, where cloud cover is frequent during spring rainy season. The LSP detections from HLS-ABI are compared with those from HLS or ABI alone and are further evaluated using PhenoCam observations. The result indicates that (1) ABI could provide ~3 times more high-quality observations than HLS around spring greenup onset; (2) the greenup and senescence onsets derived from ABI and HLS-ABI are spatially consistent and statistically comparable with a median difference less than 1 and 10-days, respectively; (3) greenup and senescence onsets derived from HLS data show sharp boundaries around the orbit-overlapped areas and shifts of ~13 days delay and ~15 days ahead, respectively, relative to HLS-ABI detections; and (4) HLS-ABI greenup and senescence onsets align closely to PhenoCam observations with an absolute average difference of less than 2 days and 5 days, respectively, which are much better than phenology detections from ABI or HLS alone. The result suggests that the proposed approach could be implemented the monitor of 30 m LSP over regions with persistent cloud cover.

Multiscale assessment of land surface phenology from harmonized Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2, PlanetScope, and PhenoCam imagery

As the spatial and temporal resolution of remotely sensed imagery has improved over the last four decades, algorithms for monitoring and mapping seasonal changes in surface properties have evolved rapidly. Most recently, the availability of daily PlanetScope imagery has created new opportunities for monitoring the land surface phenology (LSP) of terrestrial ecosystems at high spatial resolution. However, the quality and value of LSP information from PlanetScope imagery have not been systematically examined. In this paper, we evaluate the character and quality of LSP information derived from PlanetScope by comparing time series of vegetation indices and LSP metrics from PlanetScope to corresponding time series and LSP metrics derived from Harmonized Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2 (HLS) imagery and PhenoCams at six sites that span a diverse range of land cover types and climate. Results show that vegetation index time series from all three data sources show high temporal correlation, and LSP metrics derived from HLS, PlanetScope, and PhenoCam show high agreement with negligible bias. Semi-variograms for phenometrics estimated from PlanetScope imagery indicate that the majority of spatial variance captured in PlanetScope phenometrics occurs well below the spatial resolution HLS imagery. At the same time, LSP metrics from HLS are most strongly correlated with the 50–75% quantiles of 3 m LSP metrics from PlanetScope. This indicates that HLS captures the average phenology at sub-pixel scale captured in PlanetScope imagery. Our results represent the first comprehensive comparison of LSP metrics estimated from PlanetScope and publicly available moderate spatial resolution imagery, and provide insights regarding: (1) the quality and character of LSP metrics derived from HLS and PlanetScope; and (2) the relative merits and trade-offs associated with the use of each data source for LSP studies.

The potential of active and passive remote sensing to detect frequent harvesting of alfalfa

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), referred to as the “Queen of Forages” because of its importance among forage crops, provides high quality forage for the livestock industry. The timing and frequency of alfalfa hay harvesting have implications on its quality and quantity. With ever-increasing capability, it is possible to use satellite remote sensing data to monitor alfalfa harvests. This study investigated the potential of using satellite remote sensing to capture frequent harvesting events on an alfalfa field in central Oklahoma. Both passive remote sensing data, namely Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), Landsat-7 and -8, Sentinel-2, Harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 (HLS), and active remote sensing data, namely Sentinel-1, were included. Our results indicate that good quality optical remote sensing datasets (i.e., cloud and cloud shadow free) with both fine spatial (≤100 m) and high temporal (effective observation at 8-day intervals or better) resolutions are necessary to detect frequent alfalfa harvesting events, challenged by possible adverse weather conditions and quick regrowth of vegetation after harvest. Landsat (7 and 8) and Sentinel-2 were more sensitive to changes in vegetation indices after harvest than MODIS due to their higher spatial resolutions, which helped avoid the mixed pixel issue in MODIS caused by its coarser spatial resolution (∼500 m). Combining Landsat (7 and 8) with Sentinel-2 imageries through linear regression between the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) values, up to one week apart, increased the accuracy of detecting frequent alfalfa harvesting events. The responses of HLS to alfalfa harvesting events were similar with fused Landsat and Sentinel-2 data using their linear relationship of NDVI values. However, the high noise level in the HLS data needs to be minimized before it can be used to detect alfalfa harvests at the regional scale. In most cases, both Sentinel-1 radar backscatter coefficients (vertical transmit and vertical receive, VV + vertical transmit and horizontal receive, VH) and interferometric coherence from Sentinel-1 Simple Look Complex (SLC) data were decreased by harvesting events in small incident angle observations (34.31°). No consistent relationships existed between backscatter or coherence and alfalfa harvests in larger incident angle observations (45.11°). Future studies should focus on small incident angle observations instead of processing all of the radar data, which has big data volume and is time-consuming. Overall, active radar has the potential to detect alfalfa harvesting events. However, it is visually less intuitive than optical data with incident angles, quantity harvested, and soil moisture being the compounding factors. This study illustrates that combining multiple optical sensors with a fine spatial resolution (e.g., Landsat-7, 8, and Sentinel-2) and/or fusing radar with optical remote sensing to increase the temporal resolution are promising approaches to detect frequent alfalfa harvesting events and other hay harvesting activities.

Mapping Daily Evapotranspiration at Field Scale Using the Harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 Dataset, with Sharpened VIIRS as a Sentinel-2 Thermal Proxy

Accurate and frequent monitoring of evapotranspiration (ET) at sub-field scales can provide valuable information for agricultural water management, quantifying crop water use and stress toward the goal of increasing crop water use efficiency and production. Using land-surface temperature (LST) data retrieved from Landsat thermal infrared (TIR) imagery, along with surface reflectance data describing albedo and vegetation cover fraction, surface energy balance models can generate ET maps down to a 30 m spatial resolution. However, the temporal sampling by such maps can be limited by the relatively infrequent revisit period of Landsat data (8 days for combined Landsats 7 and 8), especially in cloudy areas experiencing rapid changes in moisture status. The Sentinel-2 (S2) satellites, as a good complement to the Landsat system, provide surface reflectance data at 10–20 m spatial resolution and 5 day revisit period but do not have a thermal sensor. On the other hand, the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) provides TIR data on a near-daily basis with 375 m resolution, which can be refined through thermal sharpening using S2 reflectances. This study assesses the utility of augmenting the Harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 (HLS) dataset with S2-sharpened VIIRS as a thermal proxy source on S2 overpass days, enabling 30 m ET mapping at a potential combined frequency of 2–3 days (including Landsat). The value added by including VIIRS-S2 is assessed both retrospectively and operationally in comparison with flux tower observations collected from several U.S. agricultural sites covering a range of crop types. In particular, we evaluate the performance of VIIRS-S2 ET estimates as a function of VIIRS view angle and cloud masking approach. VIIRS-S2 ET retrievals (MAE of 0.49 mm d−1 against observations) generally show comparable accuracy to Landsat ET (0.45 mm d−1) on days of commensurate overpass, but with decreasing performance at large VIIRS view angles. Low-quality VIIRS-S2 ET retrievals linked to imperfect VIIRS/S2 cloud masking are also discussed, and caution is required when applying such data for generating ET timeseries. Fused daily ET time series benefited during the peak growing season from the improved multi-source temporal sampling afforded by VIIRS-S2, particularly in cloudy regions and over surfaces with rapidly changing vegetation conditions, and value added for real-time monitoring applications is discussed. This work demonstrates the utility and feasibility of augmenting the HLS dataset with sharpened VIIRS TIR imagery on S2 overpass dates for generating high spatiotemporal resolution ET products.

Cover Crop Mapping in Lower Peninsula of Michigan State Using Harmonized Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2 (HLS) data

Cover Crop Mapping in Lower Peninsula of Michigan State Using Harmonized Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2 (HLS) data

Mapping Crop Phenology in Near Real-Time Using Satellite Remote Sensing: Challenges and Opportunities

Crop phenology is critical for agricultural management, crop yield estimation, and agroecosystem assessment. Traditionally, crop growth stages are observed from the ground, which is time-consuming and lacks spatial variability. Remote sensing Vegetation Index (VI) time series has been used to map land surface phenology (LSP) and relate to crop growth stages mostly after the growing season. In recent years, high temporal and spatial resolution remote sensing data have allowed near-real-time mapping of crop phenology within the growing season. This paper summarizes two classes of near-real-time mapping methods, i.e., curve-based and trend-based approaches. The curve-based approaches combine the time series VIs and crop growth stages from historical years with the current observations to estimate crop growth stages. The curve-based approaches are capable of a short-term prediction. The trend-based approaches detect upward or downward trends from time series and confirm the trends using the increasing or decreasing momentum and VI thresholds. The trend-based approaches only use current observations. Both curve-based and trend-based approaches are promising in mapping crop growth stages timely. Nevertheless, mapping crop phenology near real-time is challenging since remote sensing observations are not always sensitive to crop growth stages. The accuracy of crop phenology detection depends on the frequency and availability of cloud-free observations within the growing season. Recent satellite datasets such as the harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 (HLS) are promising for mapping crop phenology within the season over large areas. Operational applications in the near future are feasible.

Analyzing Daily Estimation of Forest Gross Primary Production Based on Harmonized Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 Product Using SCOPE Process-Based Model

Vegetation top-of-canopy reflectance contains valuable information for estimating vegetation biochemical and structural properties, and canopy photosynthesis (gross primary production (GPP)). Satellite images allow studying temporal variations in vegetation properties and photosynthesis. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has produced a harmonized Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 (HLS) data set to improve temporal coverage. In this study, we aimed to explore the potential and investigate the information content of the HLS data set using the Soil Canopy Observation of Photosynthesis and Energy fluxes (SCOPE) model to retrieve the temporal variations in vegetation properties, followed by the GPP simulations during the 2016 growing season of an evergreen Norway spruce dominated forest stand. We optimized the optical radiative transfer routine of the SCOPE model to retrieve vegetation properties such as leaf area index and leaf chlorophyll, water, and dry matter contents. The results indicated percentage differences less than 30% between the retrieved and measured vegetation properties. Additionally, we compared the retrievals from HLS data with those from hyperspectral airborne data for the same site, showing that HLS data preserve a considerable amount of information about the vegetation properties. Time series of vegetation properties, retrieved from HLS data, served as the SCOPE inputs for the time series of GPP simulations. The SCOPE model reproduced the temporal cycle of local flux tower measurements of GPP, as indicated by the high Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency value (&gt;0.5). However, GPP simulations did not significantly change when we ran the SCOPE model with constant vegetation properties during the growing season. This might be attributed to the low variability in the vegetation properties of the evergreen forest stand within a vegetation season. We further observed that the temporal variation in maximum carboxylation capacity had a pronounced effect on GPP simulations. We focused on an evergreen forest stand. Further studies should investigate the potential of HLS data across different forest types, such as deciduous stand.