Hard Wood Research Articles

Comparative adsorption of selected pesticides from aqueous solutions by activated carbon and biochar

ABSTRACT This work aimed to determine activated carbon (AC) and hard wood derived biochar (BC) adsorption capacity for the uptake of four pesticides atrazine, chlorothalanil, α-endosulfan and β-endosulfan from aqueous solution by conducting batch experiments under different experimental conditions. Structural properties of AC and BC were determined through ‘SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope), FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer) and XRD (X-ray Powder Diffraction Spectroscopy)’. The optimized pH, particle size, contact time, agitation speed and initial pesticides concentration for the maximum adsorption rates were found to be 7, 250 μm, 60 min, 180 rpm and 12 μgL−¹ respectively. Pesticides adsorption were enhanced by increasing pH to 7 while slight decrease were noted when pH increases from 7 to 9. The adsorption equilibrium data were well described by the Langmuir isotherm model having a significant correlation coefficient value from 0.9999 to 1. Adsorption kinetic data were well fitted with the Lagergren's Pseudo-Second-Order kinetic model. The standard Gibb's free energy (ΔG) negative value at every temperature shows the practicability and spontaneity of the adsorption process. While the negative value for enthalpy change (ΔH) indicated the collective impact of exothermic adsorptions process with randomness intensifying due to positive entropy change.

Rapid Risk Assessment of the Detection of Listeria Monocytogenes in Enoki Mushrooms

This rapid assessment has been requested to inform a decision by FSA Policy whether a temporary overarching risk management response to the commodity (enoki mushrooms) is necessary. Cultivated enoki mushrooms are deprived of light and grown in a CO2-rich environment. Commercially grown enoki mushrooms are grown in hard wood sawdust that is impregnated with the spores. The sawdust is usually good for four or five crops of mushrooms. The mushrooms are encouraged to grow long and thin by placing glass tubes over them. This produces a pale white mushroom with long, slender stems, up to five inches in length, and small caps. Whilst specific practices may vary, generally the initial growing environment is humid with a temperature between 22°C – 25°C, followed by lowering the temperature to 7°C – 12°C whilst maintaining humidity. It is this change in temperature that causes the mycelium to form fruiting bodies that grow into mature mushrooms which are harvested after about 90 days (Pereira et al., 2023). The species Flammulina filiformis, known and sold in different regions as “enoki”/“enokitake” Japan, “jingu” (China), “futu” (India), “paengi beoseot” (Korea), “nám kim cham” (Vietnam) also grows wild throughout a broad natural range on the rotting wood of a range of common trees, although wild-growing mushrooms appear quite different. The majority of enoki mushrooms on sale appear to be commercially cultivated and fresh rather than wild mushrooms. It is unknown if wild enoki mushrooms present a similar L. monocytogenes risk to cultivated mushrooms. Listeria spp., including L. monocytogenes, can be present in the soil (Linke et al., 2014), and are common in natural and urban environments (Orsi and Wiedmann, 2016). Contamination and proliferation is possible during cultivation but also during harvesting and packing (uncertainty).

Assessing the effects of allelopathic properties of organic mulches on liverwort control in container-grown ornamentals

Liverwort (Marchantia polymorpha) is a problematic weed in ornamental crop production. The major limitation of liverwort control is lack of herbicide options inside greenhouses and their potential to cause injury. The current research was undertaken to study the effectiveness of allelopathic properties of six different organic mulches including rice hull (RH), cocoa hull (CH), pine bark (PB), maple leaf (ML), shredded cypress (SC), and red hardwood (HW) for liverwort control. Mulch extracts were prepared and used to impregnate agar media at an increasing dose at 1X (2 mL mulch extract), 2X (4 mL), 3X (6 mL), and 4X (8 mL) rates, in a randomized complete block design. Ten liverwort gemmae were transferred to each petri dish and they were maintained inside a growth chamber. The number of gemmae germinating in each petri dish after 1 week and gemmae surviving at the end of 2 weeks was recorded. In greenhouse study, mulch extracts were applied to containers filled with substrate for assessing liverwort control. The mulch extracts or no extract (control) were applied to the containers uniformly at 1X (15 mL), 2X (30 mL), 3X (45 mL) or 4X (60 mL) rates, in a randomized complete block design. The percentage of substrate surface covered by liverwort thalli was visually estimated bi-weekly for 10 weeks. Fresh biomass of the thalli and gemmae cup counts in each pot were also recorded. After 1 week in the growth chamber, ML followed by SC, PB and RH extracts showed maximum suppression of liverwort gemmae germination. At 2 weeks, ML applied at either of the rates provided complete inhibition of liverwort growth. In greenhouse, all the mulch extracts were able to provide complete liverwort control for the first two weeks. All the mulches and rates of applications were significantly different from the control after 6, 8, and 10 weeks. PB and HW mulches showed excellent liverwort control and minimum fresh biomass of liverwort after 10 weeks as compared to other mulches. The allelopathic potential of the organic mulches can be a promising option for biopesticidal control of liverwort and a component of integrated liverwort management.

Evaluation of PGRrsquo;s, girth of hard wood stem cuttings and rooting media for rapid multiplication of guava (Psidium guajava L.) cv. Allahabad Safeda

Evaluation of PGRrsquo;s, girth of hard wood stem cuttings and rooting media for rapid multiplication of guava (Psidium guajava L.) cv. Allahabad Safeda

Effect of IBA and NAA on the Rooting and Vegetative Growth of Hardwood Cuttings in Common Fig (Ficus carica L.)

The present investigation was carried out at Horticultural Nursery of Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural University (RLBCAU), Jhansi during the year 2021 to study the effect of different levels of IBA and NAA on the rooting and vegetative growth of hard wood cutting in common fig. The experiment was laid out in Completely Randomized Design in eleven treatments with three replications. The treatments comprised of IBA (500, 1000, 1500, 2000, 2500 ppm) and NAA (500, 1000,1500, 2000, 2500 ppm) by quick dip method along with control. The result indicated that IBA (2500 ppm) was found to be best in terms of early sprouting (10.26 days), Sprouted cutting (88.84%), survival % (87.29), number of roots cutting-1(12.35 and 20.86), length of longest root cutting-1 (23.01 cm), length of shoot (12.37 cm and 26.19 cm ), shoot diameter (1.59 cm), number of shoot cutting-1 (1.73 and 2.06) , fresh weight of roots cutting-1 (12.72 g), dry weight of roots cutting-1 (4.75 g) fresh weight of shoot cutting-1 (32.73 g), dry weight of shoot cutting-1 (9.19 g), number of leaves (8.77 and 11.40), leaf size i.e. length and width (14.20 cm and 13.56 cm), fresh weight of plant biomass (45.46 g) and dry weight of plant biomass (13.94 g).

Advances in Blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) In Vitro Culture: A Review

The demand for Vaccinium fruits has skyrocketed due to their nutritional and medicinal properties, notably their high content of phenolic compounds and excellent sensory evaluation. The use of Vaccinium plants and its components as dietary supplements and health ingredients has been on the rise across the world. The attractive fruits contain a high content of anthocyanins and antioxidant compounds. In some popular and valuable cultivars, the conventional propagation methods, exploiting hard or soft wood cuttings, are inefficient. The demand for nursery plants can be fulfilled by micropropagation. This review aims to explore advances in the in vitro culture of Vaccinium plants, focusing on effective disinfection, optimized culture media, and the role of growth regulators in plant development and multiplication. By providing a controlled environment, micropropagation allows the large-scale production of these plants in a short time, ensuring availability throughout the year. Additionally, this technique offers the advantage of studying the effects of abiotic stresses on plants, as well as facilitating research on the production of relevant metabolites. This review seeks to provide an updated overview of the most promising methods and techniques for micropropagation of Vaccinium, thereby contributing to the ongoing development of the blueberry production industry and derivative products.

Establishment of an Efficient Protoplast Isolation and Transfection Method for Eucommia ulmoides Oliver.

Eucommia ulmoides Oliver is a unique high-quality natural rubber tree species and rare medicinal tree species in China. The rapid characterization of E. ulmoides gene function has been severely hampered by the limitations of genetic transformation methods and breeding cycles. The polyethylene glycol (PEG)-mediated protoplast transformation system is a multifunctional and rapid tool for the analysis of functional genes in vivo, but it has not been established in E. ulmoides. In this study, a large number of highly active protoplasts were isolated from the stems of E. ulmoides seedlings by enzymatic digestion, and green fluorescent protein expression was facilitated using a PEG-mediated method. Optimal enzymatic digestion occurred when the enzyme was digested for 10 h in an enzymatic solution containing 2.5% Cellulase R-10 (w/v), 0.6% Macerozyme R-10 (w/v), 2.5% pectinase (w/v), 0.5% hemicellulase (w/v), and 0.6 mol/L mannitol. The active protoplast yield under this condition was 1.13 × 106 protoplasts/g fresh weight, and the protoplast activity was as high as 94.84%. This study established the first protoplasm isolation and transient transformation system in hard rubber wood, which lays the foundation for subsequent functional studies of E. ulmoides genes to achieve high-throughput analysis, and provides a reference for future gene function studies of medicinal and woody plants.

Prediction of the Slagging and Fouling of Indonesian Coal with Hard Wood from Central and East Java

Indonesia as an agricultural country has abundant biomass potential, especially wood waste in Java. The prospect of co-firing is considered ideal to overcome the problem of coal use in boilers. This is also in line with supporting the Indonesian government program in increasing the use of renewable energy. Samples of coal co-firing with wood waste from Central Java and East Java were selected for this study. Furthermore, blending between coal and wood biomass from Central and East Java with a composition ratio of (25%:75%) and (50%:50%). Furthermore, it is predicted based on the risk tendency of slagging and fouling. The risk of slagging, fouling, abrasion, and corrosion with theoretical index. In general, increasing the composition of coal blending with hardwood increases the tendency of slagging and fouling. However, blending coal with hardwood from Central Java at a mixture of (25%:75%) can be recommended because it has a low risk of slagging and fouling.

The habitat utilization and environmental resilience of Homo heidelbergensis in Europe

The European populations of Homo heidelbergensis may have contributed to the genetic heritage of modern Eurasians. A better understanding of the possible effects of palaeoenvironmental alterations on the evolution of ancient humans can help to understand the origin of developed traits. For this purpose, the spatiotemporal alterations of physical factors were modelled in Europe for the period of 670–190 ka, covering the existence of Homo heidelbergensis in Europe. The factors included the following: paleoclimatic conditions, climatic suitability values of ancient humans, two prey species, and the European beech. Furthermore, the distribution and features of wood used for toolmaking were also investigated. Finally, changes in the relative mortality risk, the percentage of the body covered by clothing, and daily energy expenditure values in the coldest quarter of the year were modelled. The results suggest that H. heidelbergensis inhabited dominantly temperate regions in Europe where prey such as red deer were present. In the northern regions, European beech trees were abundant. When making wood tools, they preferred relatively light but not the strongest woods, which were readily available in the vicinity of the sites. Although hard and heavy woods were also occasionally used, at a European level, significant changes were observed in the relative mortality risk, the percentage of the body covered by clothing, and daily energy expenditure values during the period of 670–190 ka. However, substantial differences between archaeological sites in these values, indicating somewhat ecological variations, were not found during the studied period.

Direct synthesis of a lithium carboxymethyl cellulose binder using wood dissolving pulp for high-performance LiFePO4 cathodes in lithium-ion batteries

Lithium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC-Li) is a promising novel water-based binder for lithium-ion batteries. The direct synthesis of CMC-Li was innovatively developed using abundant wood dissolving pulp materials from hardwood (HW) and softwood (SW). The resulting CMC-Li-HW and CMC-Li-SW binders possessed a suitable degree of substitutions and excellent molecular weight distributions with an appropriate quantity of long- and short-chain celluloses, which facilitated the construction of a reinforced concrete-like bonding system. When used as cathode binders in LiFePO4 batteries, they uniformly coated and dispersed the electrode materials, formed a compact and stable conductive network with high mechanical strength and showed sufficient lithium replenishment. The prepared LiFePO4 batteries exhibited good mechanical stability, low charge transfer impedance, high initial discharge capacity (∼180 mAh/g), high initial Coulombic efficiency (99 %), excellent cycling performance (<3% loss over 200 cycles) and good rate capability, thereby outperforming CMC-Na and the widely used cathode binder polyvinylidene fluoride.

RESPONSES OF IBA AND NAA ON SHOOT AND ROOT GROWTH OF SEMI HARD WOOD CUTTINGS OF GUGGUL [COMMIPHORA WIGHTII (ARN.) BHAN.

RESPONSES OF IBA AND NAA ON SHOOT AND ROOT GROWTH OF SEMI HARD WOOD CUTTINGS OF GUGGUL [COMMIPHORA WIGHTII (ARN.) BHAN.

Studies on Propagation of New Almond × Peach Hybrids by Hard Wood Cuttings

Studies on Propagation of New Almond × Peach Hybrids by Hard Wood Cuttings

Removal of Plastics from Micron Size to Nanoscale Using Wood Filter.

Plastic pollution, particularly microplastic (MP) and nanoplastic (NP) pollution, has become a significant concern. This study explores the use of porous wood for filtration to remove MPs and NPs and investigates their removal mechanisms. Undecorated fir wood with a thickness of 4 mm achieves a 91% removal rate for model polystyrene (PS) MPs (2.6 μm) at a water flux of 198 L/m2h. However, its separation performance for NPs (255.8 and 50.9 nm) is poor. It also shows that fir wood (coniferous wood) has a higher PS removal rate than poplar wood (hard wood). With poly dimethyl diallyl ammonium chloride (PDDA) modification, both MPs and NPs are effectively removed, with NPs' removal rate increasing from <10% to 90% for PDDA/wood. Characterization results reveal that size-exclusive interception dominates for micron-sized particles, and electrostatic interaction is crucial for nanosized particles. Additionally, intercepted NPs have been used as a strong binder for hot-pressed wood to remarkably enhance the mechanical properties of wood, suggesting a novel recycle utilization of discarded wood filters. Overall, this renewable wood material offers a simple solution for tackling MP/NP pollution.

Perbandingan Teknik Isolasi DNA pada Daun dan Kayu Sonokeling (Dalbergia latifolia)

Sonokeling (Dalbergia latifolia) is a hardwood plant, resistant to termite attack, its wood has beautiful patterned fibers and textures, so it is widely used for furniture in luxury categories with high economic value. According to CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endagered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora), rosewood trade status is included in appendix II. In the trade of rosewood in both domestic and international markets, there are relatively many obstacles and difficulties in identifying the origin of rosewood. It is very important to establish a reference on the identity of wood based on the location of origin as an effort to prevent illegal trade, namely by using a molecular-based identification approach (DNA fingerprinting). In the isolation of rosewood DNA, special techniques are required due to its hard wood characteristics. This study aims to compare DNA isolation techniques from rosewood and rosewood leaves using the CTAB (Cetyl Trimethyl Ammonium Bromide) protocol and the DNA Mini Kit Plant protocol. The research used molecular biology-based identification methods. PCR results showed that the DNA isolation protocol using the commercial kit outperformed the CTAB protocol for both leaf and wood samples. DNA isolation from wood samples was more difficult than leaf samples. Overall, the best protocol for DNA isolation from rosewood leaves and wood was to use a commercial kit.

Выращивание культур кедра сибирского в условиях повреждаемости дикими животными

The research of 26-year-old mixed plantations of Siberian spruce and Siberian stone pine cultivated by biogroups of about 300 pcs/ha (2–5 stone pine seedlings alternating 4–9 spruce seedlings in a row) has shown that the damage rate by moose to them is much lower than to pure stone pine plantations or the mixed ones of Siberian stone pines and Scots pines we have studied before. The share of biogroups containing damaged stone pine trees is 18 %. A third of this number is plantations with damage to all the trees. This is most pronounced in biogroups of 4 to 5 stone pines as well as in case of frequent alternation of biogroups in a row. 76 % living stone pines have been preserved (89.3 % of them without damage to the stem). About two thirds of them (about 500 pcs/ha) grow in the crown of spruce trees adjacent to stone pine biogroups. Prolonged exposure to growing in a spruce tree crown negatively affects the growth of a stone pine’s central shoot and crown. We are the first in the Middle Urals to propose a scheme for cultivating sustained productive mixed plantations of Siberian stone pines and Siberian spruce trees (or Norway spruce trees). Stone pines are planted in biogroups of 2–3 seedlings, beginning the planting strictly on one side of the site. The first biogroup in odd-numbered rows (1, 2, 3, 5, etc.) is planted after 3 spruce seedlings from the beginning of the row, the second and subsequent biogroups in these rows – after 9 spruce seedlings. The first biogroup in even-numbered rows (2, 4, 6, 8, etc.) is planted after 9 spruce seedlings from the beginning of the row, maintaining this sequence until the end of the row. Every row in mixed plantations is concluded with planting no less than 3 spruce seedlings. During silvicultural treatment procedures natural regeneration is completely removed: softwoods – by mechanical means, and hard woods – by ringing or injection of environmentally friendly water-based chemicals. These measures reduce or eliminate the appearance of coppice and, accordingly, food reserve for wild animals. Spruce trees adjacent to stone pine biogroups are cut down while lightening and thinning, which creates the possibility for the growth of stone pines. The proposed method for cultivating plantations of Siberian stone pines and Siberian spruce trees has been patented. It can be introduced into silvicultural practice in the taiga zone where stone pines are grown.

Thermal Decomposition and Kinetic Parameters of Three Biomass Feedstocks for the Performance of the Gasification Process Using a Thermogravimetric Analyzer

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) is a powerful technique and useful method for characterizing biomass as a non-conventional fuel. A TGA apparatus has been utilized to experimentally investigate the impact of biomass feedstock diversity on the performance of the gasification of hardwood (HW), softwood (SW) pellets, and refuse-derived fuel (RDF) materials. The solid conversion rate and the volatile species formation rate have been estimated to quantify the rates of devolatilization for each material. In addition, the combustion kinetic characteristics of the three biomass feedstocks were investigated using TGA at different heating rates, and a thermal kinetic analysis was conducted to describe the gasification process. Therefore, the kinetic parameters have been evaluated for different thermal reactions and non-isothermal kinetic models that depend on the relationships between heating rates and temperature profiles. The results show that the amount of tar content from the RDF was higher than that of pure hardwood and softwood feedstocks. Hence, tar removal must be part of any process using syngas produced from RDF feedstocks in a gas engine to produce electricity.

Traditional smoking of Wallachian cheeses and sausages in Polish and Slovak parts of the Carpathian Mountains

AbstractWallachian expansion brought to the Carpathian Mountains a system of shepherd economy—farming, production of Wallachian cheeses, animals adapted to life in difficult mountain conditions—mainly sheep of the Cakiel breed group. Mountain sheep's milk is used to produce traditional cheeses: bundz, bryndza podhalańska, oscypek, redykołka—on the Polish side and Slovenská bryndza, Slovenská parenica, Slovenský oštiepok, Ovčí hrudkový syr salašnícky—on the Slovak side. Also sausages are made from sheep meat. These cheeses and sausages are salted and then traditionally smoked. The source of heat and smoke is hard wood with appropriate humidity, burned in the hearth located in the shepherd's hut, over which the cheeses are placed under the roof. Among several hundred smoke components, there are also polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, which, on the one hand, give the smoked product its taste and aroma, and on the other hand have carcinogenic and mutagenic properties. Sausages and cheeses from Poland and Slovakia, made from milk and meat of native sheep breeds, preserved by traditional smoking, were analyzed for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons content. The analyzed cheeses were characterized by a trace or low content of benzo[a]pyrene and the sum of benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(b)fluoranthene and chrysene. In cheeses from outer Eastern Carpathians subprovince (Bieszczady), the high content of naphthalene, acenaphthylene, fluorene and phenanthrene is noteworthy. Polish lamb sausages were characterized by a higher content of benzo(a)pyrene and the sum of benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(b)fluoranthene and chrysene. The differences result from the method of smoking (warm or cold in the south of the Carpathians—hot in the north) and the type of wood used for smoking.

АНАЛІЗ ЕФЕКТИВНОСТІ КОНСТРУКТИВНИХ ТА ТЕХНОЛОГІЧНИХ РІШЕНЬ У ВИРОБНИЦТВІ СКЛАДАЛЬНИХ ОДИНИЦЬ ГРАТЧАСТИХ МЕБЛЕВИХ ВИРОБІВ

The existing types of backs of carpentry chairs, which are part of a kitchen set of furniture, which are constructed from elements of hard wood species, in particular oak, and the technological processes of their manufacture have been analyzed. The technologies and production processes accompanying the creation of the backs of carpentry chairs are analyzed and described in detail. The methodology of research and comparison of technological processes of manufacturing the backs of carpentry chairs with structural features are substantiated. The necessary materials for two types of manufacturing backs of carpentry chairs from oak wood from natural wood were selected and calculated. The necessary basic equipment was selected and calculated according to the developed manufacturing technologies for two options for the manufacture of chair backs. The necessary technological routes for each variant of manufacturing the backs of carpentry chairs were selected, developed and calculated. Two shop plans are proposed according to the developed technologies for manufacturing the backs of carpentry chairs. A comparison of the amount of equipment loading of each variant of manufacturing the backs of carpentry chairs was carried out. The results of the preliminary analysis based on the data of three indicators (cost and capacity of the equipment, number of employees) gave the right to recommend the second option for the manufacture of the backs of carpentry chairs, which are included in the set of kitchen furniture, which is constructed from prepared elements of solid species of wood, in particular oak from natural wood, where the cost of equipment is the lowest and amounts to UAH 827.65 thousand, the number of employees is 8, the total power is 15.27 kW. On the other hand, the cost of materials for the first option is much higher than in the second. Economic calculations proved and calculated that the least expensive for the implementation of the annual program in the amount of 30,000 backs of carpentry chairs, which are included in the set of kitchen furniture, which is constructed from prepared elements from hard species of wood, in particular, oak from natural wood, is the second option, where the investments amounted to UAH 14,252.98 thousand, which is 20% less than in the first option.

Optimization of durable superhydrophobic wood with superstrong ultraviolet resistance and chemical stability

The less UV durability and weak chemical stability of superhydrophobic wood limited its wide application. Cu2(OH)3Cl nano particles, epoxy (EP), vinyltriethoxysilane (VTES), and room temperature vulcanized silicone rubber (RTV) were combined together to modify both soft and hard wood with function of superhydrophobic at once successfully. The modified wood was endowed not only superhydrophobicity as expected, such as CA more than 150°, along with anti-fouling and self-cleaning properties, but also excellent durability, including well chemical, sandpaper abrasion, water impact and tape peeling stability. Most prominently, there was almost no color changing being observed on the modified samples. Furthermore, the best UV resistance, 3168 h consistently against UV irradiation, was achieved in the field of wood superhydrophobic modification. The proposed synergistic protective mechanism by synthesizing silicon dioxide and siloxane has potential to extend the service life and improve the high value utilization of wood product.

Effect of Indole-3-Butyric Acid (IBA) on Hardwood Cutting of Grapes (Vitis vinifera L.) cv. Pusa Navrang

Aims: The study aims to investigate the influence of different IBA concentration on the rooting and subsequent growth of hardwood cuttings of "Pusa Navrang" grapevine.&#x0D; Study Design: The study was performed in RBD design with replicate 5 times.&#x0D; Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted at Research Farm, College of Horticulture, Mandsaur, during the period November 2020- March 21.&#x0D; Methodology: Polybags size of 5 X 7 inch was used for experiment. After the filling of growing media in poly bags, the hard wood cuttings of Pusa Navrang with uniform size having 4-5 functional bud was taken from one year matured canes from research farm, College of Horticulture, Mandsaur. The diameter of cutting about 0.75 to 1 cm (pencil thickness) were taken and before planting cuttings were treated with IBA solution by quick dip method.&#x0D; Results: The significant result were found for shoot parameter like shoot length, number of nodes per shoot, internodal length, number of buds per shoot, stem diameter, stem fresh weight, stem dry weight. Root Parameters like number of primary and secondary roots, root length, root thickness, whole root volume, fresh weight of root and dry weight of root. Leaf Parameters like number of leaves per plant, fresh weight of leaf, dry weight of leaf, leaf area, leaf area index, specific leaf weight, minimum days taken to emergence of 1st leaf and water content of leaf found in IBA @ 6000 ppm (G3).&#x0D; Conclusion: Among four concentration of growth regulator (IBA), the application of IBA @ 6000 ppm (G3) responded well in terms of rooting and shooting in hard wood cutting of grapes.