Hard Court Research Articles

Opening up the court: analyzing player performance across tennis Grand Slams

Abstract In tennis, the Australian Open, French Open, Wimbledon, and US Open are the four most prestigious events (Grand Slams). These four Grand Slams differ in the composition of the court surfaces, when they are played in the year, and which city hosts the players. Individual Grand Slams come with different expectations, and it is often thought that some players achieve better results at some Grand Slams than others. It is also thought that differences in results may be attributed, at least partially, to surface type of the courts. For example, Rafael Nadal, Roger Federer, and Serena Williams have achieved their best results on clay, grass, and hard courts, respectively. This paper explores differences among Grand Slams, while adjusting for confounders such as tour, competitor strength, and player attributes. More specifically, we examine the effect of the Grand Slam on player performance for matches from 2013 to 2019. We take two approaches to modeling these data: (1) a mixed-effects model accounting for both player and tournament features and (2) models that emphasize individual performance. We identify differences across the Grand Slams at both the tournament and individual player level.

Influence of hard, artificial grass and clay court surfaces on wheelchair tennis players' mobility-a case study

Wheelchair mobility is an important factor for success in wheelchair tennis. Tennis matches can be played on different surfaces, so the aim of the present study was to analyse the influence of court surface on wheelchair tennis mobility. Four male wheelchair tennis players (age = 33.75 ± 12.33 years) performed two tests (20 m sprint and agility t-test) on three official court surfaces (hard, artificial grass and clay). Photocell gates were used to record time and ascertain sprint and turn ability of the wheelchair tennis players. ANOVA test with post hoc pairwise comparisons were conducted to compare the mean differences among surfaces. Following the analysis, the wheelchair tennis players moved faster on hard or clay surfaces than on artificial grass although no statistically significant differences in the 20 m sprint and agility t-test between each of the three surfaces were found (p > 0.05). Moreover, the surface seems to affect mobility more, with respect to turns than in linear locomotion, although more research is needed on this aspect. The playing surfaces may need to be an extra variable in planning performance related activities such as techniques and tactics.

Challenging serve myths in doubles tennis

Doubles tennis has received little interest from quantitative research to date. Coach-led anecdotes therefore abound. The aims of this study were therefore to evaluate the veracity of the following common anecdotes: (a) serving teams have an advantage regardless of the length of the point; (b) serving teams have a greater advantage with new balls; (c) regular teams perform better when serving than new teams and (d) serving teams decrease their performance during break points. Data from doubles hard-court and clay-court tennis were collated for 52 doubles teams during 2018 ATP tournaments. Results revealed that the advantage of serving teams was evident on the points lasting up to 4 shots. Serving teams only had a greater advantage with new balls when playing on clay courts and suffered reduced winning probabilities on break points. A team’s familiarity only seemed to positively influence outcomes on hard courts. In sum, our novel findings highlight the important role that quantitative analysis can play in challenging doubles convention and shaping contemporary practice design and match strategy.

Effect of simulated tennis steps and slides on tread element friction and wear

In hard court tennis, players change direction by either stepping or sliding. The shoe–surface friction during these movements is crucial to player performance. Too little friction when stepping may result in a slip. Too much friction when attempting to slide could cause the player to move only a short distance, or to fail to slide. To understand the influence of tread design on shoe–surface friction in tennis, experiments were performed on individual shoe tread elements that replicated the tribological conditions typically experienced during hard court step and slide movements. Tread element orientation had no effect on the static friction in step movements, but longer tread elements (in the sliding direction) had 9% lower dynamic friction during slide movements (p < 0.001). The friction between tennis shoe tread and hard court tennis surfaces is also shown to be influenced by the tread’s sliding history, and the wearing pattern that forms on the surface of the rubber.

Effects of in-play cooling during simulated tennis match play in the heat on performance, physiological and perceptual measures.

The aim of this crossover study was to investigate whether a cooling intervention during simulated tennis match play in the heat could affect players' performance, physiology, perception of effort, and well-being. Eight competitive male tennis players performed two testing sessions of 45-minute simulated tennis match play on a hard court at 31.8±2.1°C and 48.5±9.6% relative humidity. During change-of-end breaks, the cooling interventions (COL) consisted of cold-water ingestion (ad libitum) and an electric fan facing the players at a distance of 1 m combined with an ice-filled damp towel around the neck and on the thighs or no cooling (CON) were applied. Measures of performance, heart rate, blood lactate concentration, tympanic and local skin temperature, sweat loss, perceived exertion, and thermal sensation as well as ratings of recovery were recorded in both sessions. Paired-samples t-tests showed no significant differences (P>0.05) in any of the measures between COL and CON. Effect size (ES) calculations indicated moderate evidence that COL was beneficial to local skin temperature (ES=-0.95) and thermal sensation (ES=-0.77). At the individual level, a positive response to COL was found in some players for heart rate, local skin temperature, thermal sensation, and ratings of recovery. A likely inability of COL to improve players' performance or reduce thermal strain during tennis match play in hot humid conditions was found at the group level. However, some players may be more likely to benefit from COL. Therefore, the use of COL should be individualized.

Hard Protection through Soft Courts? Non-Refoulement before the United Nations Treaty Bodies

AbstractThis Article comparatively analyses how the prohibition of refoulement is interpreted by United Nations Treaty Bodies (UNTBs) in their individual decision-making, where we suggest they act as “soft courts.” It asks whether UNTBs break ranks with or follow the interpretations of non-refoulement of the European Court of Human Rights. This investigation is warranted because non-refoulement is the single most salient issue that has attracted individual views from UNTBs since 1990. Moreover, our European focus is warranted as nearly half of the cases concern states that are also parties to the European Convention on Human Rights. Based on a multi-dimensional analysis of non-refoulement across an original dataset of over 500 UNTB non-refoulement cases, decided between 1990–2020, as well as pertinent UNTB General Comments, the Article finds that whilst UNTBs, at times, do adopt a more progressive position than their “harder” regional counterpart, there are also instances where they closely follow the interpretations of the European Court of Human Rights and, on occasion, adopt a more restrictive position. This analysis complicates the view that soft courts are likely to be more progressive interpreters than hard courts. It further shows that variations in the interpretation of non-refoulement in a crowded field of international interpreters present risks for evasion of accountability, whereby domestic authorities in Europe may favor the more convenient interpretation, particularly in environments hostile to non-refoulement.

Analysis of Grand Slam Tennis Tournaments by Gender

The aim of this study is to analyze the variables determined in tournaments on different court surfaces by gender. In this research, official websites of 2019 Grand Slam tennis tournaments were used in the category of single men and single women as data collection tool. In the research, winning matches in the American Open and Australian Open played on hard surface (250 single men, 252 single women), the French Open played on clay surface (127 single men, 122 single women) and Wimbledon played on grass surface (127 single men, 126 single women) were analyzed. In these competitions, aces, double fault, win on 1st. serve, win on 2nd. serve, break points, unforced errors, winner, total points, fastest service and match duration were evaluated. SPSS 22.0 statistical software was used to evaluate the data and to find the calculated values. Since the data showed normal distribution, t test was used in independent groups and the level of significance was accepted as 0.05. When the variables taken into consideration were compared by gender, there was no statistically significant difference between men and women only in the double fault variable in the clay court (p> 0.05), whereas all other variables were significantly different in all courts (p <0.05). It has been determined that women's double fault, break points and unforced errors on hard and grass court, break points and unforced errors performance on clay court are better than man athletes. As a result, it can be said that the selected variables are affected by the gender factor on all court surfaces.

RELATIVE AGE IN FEMALE FUTSAL ATHLETES: IMPLICATIONS ON ANTHROPOMETRIC PROFILE AND STARTER STATUS

ABSTRACT Introduction: Evidence suggests that a higher distribution of elite athletes have birth dates in the first few months of the year. However, the advantages of birth month on performance related to starter status, structure and body composition in female futsal (5-a-side football played on a hard court, mainly indoors), are unknown. Objective: To determine the effect of relative age (ERA) on competitive female futsal athletes, and its influence on anthropometric profile and starter status. Methods: One hundred and fifteen athletes, participants in the 20th Brazilian Cup of Adult Futsal Clubs, special division, were submitted to measurements of body mass, height, skinfold thickness, body perimeters and bone diameters, in order to characterize the anthropometric profile and determine the body somatotype. The athletes were distributed in semesters and quartiles of the months of the year, according to their birth dates. Differences in the distribution of expected and observed birth dates were tested using Chi-square tests (χ2). Comparisons between semesters and birth quartiles were performed using parametric and non-parametric tests. Results: There was no ERA in distribution (p=0.248), anthropometric profile (p=0.872 to 0.912), or starter status between athletes born from January to June (p=0.352) and those born between July and December (p=0.744). On the other hand, those born in the first months of the year showed longer practice times than those born in the latter months of the year. Conclusion: Although the ERA in this study reveals longer practice times favoring female futsal athletes born in the first quartile of the year, it did not influence the starter status, the distribution in the teams, or any advantage in anthropometric profile. Level of evidence III, Case-Control Study.

Beach and indoor volleyball athletes present similar lower limb muscle activation during a countermovement jump

PurposeThe study aimed to compare and correlate the power, height, eccentric and concentric force development rate of 3 sequential attempts of countermovement jump (CMJ) and the respective muscle response in beach and indoor volleyball athletes.MethodsThe sample involved high-level hard court indoor volleyball (HCIV, &lt;i&gt;n&lt;/i&gt; = 7) and high-level sand court beach volleyball (SCBV, &lt;i&gt;n&lt;/i&gt; = 6) athletes. They performed 3 CMJs (1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; CMJ vs. 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; CMJ vs. 3&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; CMJ) to determine the height, eccentric force development rate (EFDR), concentric force development rate (CFDR), power, and lower limbs muscle electrical activity.ResultsDifference was demonstrated between HCIV vs. SCBV players in 3&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; CMJ EFDR (–270.2 ± 31.6 N/s vs. –214.3 ± 38.7 N/s). In HCIV, 1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; CMJ was different from 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; CMJ and 3&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; CMJ in EFDR (–239.0 ± 27.3 N/s vs. –285.6 ± 40.2 N/s and –270.2 ± 31.6 N/s), CFDR (87.8 ± 24.4 N/s vs. 89.6 ± 25.7 N/s and 75.0 ± 23.6 N/s), and power (2341.8 ± 342.3 W vs. 2433.9 ± 327.2 W and 2411.0 ± 358.5 W). In SCBV, 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; CMJ was different from 3rd CMJ in EFDR (–267.1 ± 45.2 N/s vs. –214.3 ± 38.7 N/s). In 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; CMJ, the left gluteus presented lower electrical activity than the left medial gastrocnemius, and HCIV revealed a difference between the response of the right and left gluteus in 3&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; CMJ.ConclusionsOur analysis demonstrated ca. 70% of good or excellent intra-class correlation between the beach and indoor groups.

The differences in energy system demands of competitive male tennis play between fast and slow courts

This study investigated the energy system demand differences between matches played on fast courts and on slow courts of high-performance male players. Matches of Grand Slam matches played by Russian players were analysed. External indicators as such in-point playing time as a proportion of total match time were used to conduct the analysis. Data analysis found significant differences in all measured external indicators such as average match playing time, number of points and in-point time. Results also found a significant difference between match motor density (the percentage of total match time that made up effective playing time) for the two surface types, with the slow surface (clay) match motor density being significantly higher than that of the fast surface (grass and hard court), 14.5% and 12.9%, respectively. Subsequent analysis of point length reveals clay courts that slow courts had a significantly higher percentage of points that lasted more than 10 seconds whilst fast courts has a higher percentage of points under 10 seconds in length. It can be concluded that due to the length of the points, tennis primarily employs the ATP-PCr energy system for energy use, dipping into the anaerobic lactic acid energy pathways more on clay court matches. Whilst the aerobic pathways are not employed heavily in-point, they are still essential, possibly even more on clay court due to greater taxation on the anaerobic lactic acid pathway, as they provide the basis for ATP re-synthesis between points. This signals toward endurance as a major component of fitness in tennis.

Analysis of the statistical variables related to the service in high performance male tennis in junior and absolute category

The aim of the study was to show the differences in the game statistics related to the service in professional and junior category in three surfaces and to determine statistical differences during the game regarding both categories. A total of 269 individual Grand Slam tennis matches (Australian Open, Wimbledon and Roland Garros) were selected on three different surfaces (hard court, grass and clay). The data was collected from the official websites of the tournaments. A total of 10 variables were analyzed in professional category and 7 in junior. Absolute players obtained higher values (p &lt;0.05) of aces, aces per set, percentage of 1st Services and points won with 1st and 2nd Service and committed fewer double faults per set than juniors in all surfaces. It is concluded that the increase in performance in the variables related to the service plays a decisive role in order to achieve a professional status.

Influence of high altitude on competition demands of the professional tennis on hard and clay surface

Tennis is played over different surfaces and under different conditions of humidity, altitude, air pressure, etc. Therefore, analyzing competition statistics is considered a key factor since it can help to shape the training in order to get a better performance of the tennis player. The aim of this study was to know the differences in match statistics of ATP 250 tournaments disputed over different court surfaces (clay and hard-court) and under different conditions of the location (sea level and altitude). 122 single male matches were analyzed (62 played in altitude and 60 at sea level). Variables related to match, serve and return were analyzed. Overall, the results showed significant differences in many variables between matches played at sea level and at altitude. The altitude situation seems to affect positively in the variables related to the service, getting the players greater number of aces and points won with first and second serve. On the contrary, the variables related to the rest seem to be affected to a greater extent in hard court than in clay. Altitude and surface conditions influence the competition statistics of professional tennis, in a way that conditions the performance of the professional player.

Men's doubles professional tennis on hard courts: Game structure and point ending characteristics

Despite the great tradition and importance of the doubles game in professional tennis, no literature has analysed to date the performance of professional players. Therefore, the information on the characteristics of the game, or the tactics related to how the points are won in doubles play is scarce. The objective of this study has been to describe the basic characteristics of the structure of the doubles game, and to establish how the points finish in doubles professional tennis played on hard courts. Thirty-four ATP doubles matches played in 2018 were analysed, which included a total of 40 professional players. As per the game structure, the results showed that, in comparison to the singles matches, the number of points per match, the number of sets per match, the number of points per game, and the number of strokes per point, are lower in the doubles matches. However, the number of games per set is higher in doubles than in singles. Winning shots and winning serves are the most frequent patterns to finish the point in doubles. These data show the great importance of the serve in doubles, as well as the relevance of using offensive tactics.

Playing tennis matches on clay court surfaces are associated with more perceived enjoyment response but less perceived exertion compared to hard courts

Background: A few studies have shown that different types of court surfaces can have different effects on tennis match performance in different age groups, however, no studies have researched on tennis match performance responses in young tennis players. Objective: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of different court surfaces on psychophysiological responses, time-motion and match characteristics of young tennis players. Methods: Twenty-six young male tennis players (age 13.0 ± 0.3 years, body height 158 ± 8 cm, body mass 48 ± 7 kg) volunteered to participate in the study. Heart rate was monitored along with total distance covered in four different speed zones-walking, low-intensity running, moderate-intensity running and high-intensity running, using two portable multivariable integrated 10 Hz GPS monitoring devices over twenty-six outdoor tennis matches; ratings of perceived exertion and enjoyment level were also determined at the end of the matches. Variables describing the characteristics of the matches determined from video recordings were: strokes per rally, rally duration, effective playing time, work-to-rest ratio and rest time between rallies. Differences between hard and clay courts were assessed by a paired t-test. Results: The results showed that clay court surfaces induced significantly more perceived enjoyment scores (29.4 ± 2.8 vs. 26.0 ± 3.2) with lower perceived exertion level (13.4 ± 2.7 vs. 14.4 ± 2.9) compared to hard courts. Moreover, a clay court surface is also more effective at improving physiological responses, time-motion and match characteristics compared to hard court. Conclusions: If a coach strives to improve their young tennis players' tennis-specific performance with greater physical enjoyment, clay court surfaces should be specially used in their tennis training season.

Epidemiology of injuries among Italian footballers: the role of the playing field

BackgroundFootball has a higher injury rate compared with other team sports such as rugby, in terms of two main categories: intrinsic (individual) and extrinsic (environmental) factors. The playing field is...

Differences between running activity in tennis training and match-play

ABSTRACTThe aim of this study was to compare the running activity between training and match-play for young high-level tennis players. Ten female and ten male young high-level tennis players took part in the study (13.80 age ±2.08 years). Twelve Portable GPS devices operating at10 Hz were used to collect velocity data. Match-play analysis was carried out by Aragon Tennis Master on hard court and training analysis was carried out by High Level Performance Centre of the Aragon Tennis Federation. The distance covered per minute (DCmin) by players in match-play was higher than in training (Match-play = 50.4 ± 6.0 m· min−1 vs. Training = 34.5 ± 6.2 m· min−1; F(1, 76) = 163.9; p < 0.001; ὴ2p = 0.64, moderate effect). The acceleration distance covered per minute (DCAmin), was higher in match-play than in training (Match-play = 45.0 ± 3.0 m· min−1 vs. Training = 28.6 ± 6.2 m· min−1; F(1, 76) = 267.6; p < 0.001; ὴ2p = 0.7, moderate effect). The results showed that match-play was characterised by demanding to players a great number of accelerating efforts, whereas in training, players do not replicate these actions, predominating movements at high average speed than in match-play.

The immediate effects of serving on shoulder rotational range of motion in tennis players

ObjectiveThis study aimed to investigate the immediate effects of serving on shoulder rotational range of motion (ROM) in tennis players by comparing to groundstrokes. DesignSame-subject, randomised, crossover study. SettingIndoor hard courts. ParticipantsEighteen male and 12 female professional and university level tennis players. Main outcome measuresPassive glenohumeral internal and external rotation ROM measurements, using a digital inclinometer, were undertaken at baseline and immediately following serving and groundstroke tasks on both dominant and non-dominant shoulders. Total rotation was calculated as the sum of internal and external rotation. ResultsOn the dominant and non-dominant shoulders there was no significant interaction effect between the factors of tennis task (serving and groundstrokes) and time (pre and post) (p = <0.05). Indicating that change in rotational ROM was not specific to tennis task. On the dominant shoulder there was a significant main effect of time (p = 0.007), with internal, external and total rotational ROM decreasing irrespective of tennis task. ConclusionBoth tennis tasks resulted in immediate significant reductions in shoulder rotational ROM on the dominant shoulder but not the non-dominant shoulder of professional and university tennis players. There was no significant difference between serving and groundstroke tasks.

Perception of Stakeholders on the Compliance of Sports Facilities to Relevant Standards in Selected Universities in South West Nigeria

This paper examines the level of compliance of sports facilities, in selected universities in South-Western Nigeria to relevant standards (National and International standards). Data were collected using a structured questionnaire which was administered on sports men and women (4 male, 2 female). Personnel responsible for maintenance of sports facilities in the universities were also sampled (two groundsmen from each University, the Director of Sports and two other members of the sport Council, Director of Works, four maintenance Supervisors, and two maintenance administrative staff, and eighteen maintenance operatives in each of the selected University). The study incorporated all the fifteen sports featured at the Nigeria University Games Association (NUGA) competitions. Three federal universities were purposively selected because these have facilities for all the fifteen sports and have hosted national and international sporting events. A total of four hundred and fifty four copies of the questionnaires (454) were administered and (342) copies were retrieved and found useful for analysis. Two hundred and sixty one copies (71.7%) copies of questionnaire were retrieved from sports men and women and 81 copies (90%) from maintenance staff in the universities sampled. Data obtained were analysed using frequency distribution, percentages and mean response analysis. The findings revealed that football field; hockey and cricket pitches were rated very low on the availability of sprinklers. The hard courts were rated very low on ‘crack free’ and ‘free of holes. The swimming pool was equally rated very poorly on pool chemical balance and cleanliness of water. The study concluded that sports facilities in South West Nigeria were not complying with the requisite national and international standards. The study therefore recommended immediate response from the management of the sports facilities in order to return the facilities to normal operations halt accelerated deterioration, correct cited safety hazards and life safety code violations.

Effects of hard versus clay courts on athletic performance under conditions of fatigue in competitive tennis

Effects of hard versus clay courts on athletic performance under conditions of fatigue in competitive tennis

Effects of hard courts and clay courts on sprinting performance after a wheelchair tennis match: an acute study

Effects of hard courts and clay courts on sprinting performance after a wheelchair tennis match: an acute study