Hanseatic Research Articles

The Rhenish League of 1254–1257 in historiographical perspective

AbstractOne of the distinctives of Rhineland cities during the central and later Middle Ages was their propensity to form leagues (Städtebünde) on their own initiative in the absence of strong imperial authority. These diplomatic and military alliances demonstrate remarkable collaboration between otherwise economic rivals in order to resolve conflicts and sustain the “king's peace” (Landfriede) when the monarch was incapable of doing so. The Rhenish League of 1254–1257, formed a century before the Hanseatic League, was the first of many such leagues. It embodied profound burgher agency and cooperation in traditional Hohenstaufen territory after the dynasty's collapse. Promising beginnings proved short‐lived, however, as the league itself dissolved over disagreements about the split royal election of 1257. But as pioneer and template for subsequent urban leagues, it has garnered special attention in German historiography. This article reviews the historical significance of the league for modern German historians and locates such perspectives within their own radically divergent historical contexts: German Confederation, Empire, Weimar Republic, Nazi Dictatorship, Cold War FRG/GDR, and since Reunification.

The spread zones and contacts of medieval Finnic in the Northeastern Baltic Sea area: Implications for the rate of language change

AbstractIn the contemporary northern Baltic Sea area, there are two states, Finland and Estonia, in which a western Uralic language has an official status. Several Finnic minority languages are or used to be spoken in the adjacent areas in the contact zone of Baltic, Germanic and Slavic languages. Historically, the north-eastern surroundings of the Gulf of Finland reflect a gradual spread of the language area during the past millennium and especially the late Middle Ages, while more southern areas in contemporary Estonia, and its eastern neighbourhood in Russia show longer continuity of language borders. The Finnic languages were used predominantly orally until very recently, whereas written language began to affect non-standard varieties more strongly only in the 19th and 20th centuries. The diversification of the Finnic languages in the Northeastern Baltic Sea area involves both integration and disintegration of mutually closely related varieties. This article focuses on i) the variability of changes and their correlation with emerging divergence between Finnic languages, ii) local language contacts during the late Middle Ages and the Early Modern age, and iii) the rate of linguistic change. The external powers affecting the diversity between the Finnic languages include the settling of early Swedish, German and Slavic centres among or in the vicinity of Finnic communities, the policies of medieval Catholic and Orthodox church, the extension of the trading networks of the Hanseatic League, wars and conflicts between dominant political powers in the east and west, as well as the gradual establishment of political borders. I will suggest that all these factors have played a role in the rate of both lexical and grammatical change.

MEDIEVAL ASTRONOMICAL CLOCKS IN THE BALTIC REGION AND THE MYSTERIOUS GOLDEN NUMBERS IN GDANSK

Large medieval clocks were built in a number of Hanseatic towns in the Baltic region from the end of the fourteenth century to the middle of the fifteenth century. Several factors contributed to their building: there was a need for public display of time in the rapidly growing medieval towns, the technique of constructing mechanical clocks became available with the invention of the verge escapement in Italy in the second half of the of the thirteenth century, and wealthy Hanseatic towns had the means to pay for their construction. The layout of the clock dial and calendar disk of a number of these clocks in the region is studied. There are two main types of clocks, an older one for clocks constructed around the beginning of the fourteenth century, and a second one for clocks constructed around the middle and end of this century. The older clocks are characterised by having a dial with a stereographic projection of the sky not used in the later clocks. Most clocks also have a calendar disk to display specific information about the days of the year like Sunday letters, golden numbers, and calendar date. The only original calendar disk extant is the one on the Saint Mary cathedral in Gdansk giving times of the mean New Moons for the years 1463 to 1538. The times indicate an origin in the Alfonsine Tables modified for the longitude of Nuremberg in Germany.

The Hanseatic League and Education - A Neglected Chapter in European and German History

The focus of this article is on the connection between education and the Hanseatic League, a topiclargely neglected in educational literature, although the qualification needs of Hanseatic merchants had a remarkable influence on the development of German and European education. The Hanseatic League as a network between merchant families, friends and trading partners, its temporal limitation from about the12th to the 17th century, its spatial expansion, its offices at home and abroad as well as its trading goods are discussed in detail.The main part of the article is dedicated to education. The general history of education in the Middle Ages cannot be separated from the specific history of merchant education. However, it can be stated that both strands of development have mutually fertilized each other. Of particular interest for today's educational processes is the importance of "learning abroad" to learn foreign languages and get to know foreign cultures, as well as the "learning by doing" that characterized the education of merchants in the Middle Ages. Since the Hanseatic League has been misused in the field of education for political ideologization over the past two centuries, a brief overview of the reception of the Hanseatic League in the history of education is appropriate.The topic is rounded off by emphasizing the importance of the European Hanseatic Museum inLübeck, founded in 2015, for education today.

Zeitgenössische Perzeption des Niedergangs der Hansekontore in den 'Hanseatica' (1674) des Danziger Syndikus Wenzel Mittendorp

The Decay of the Hanseatic Kontors in the „Hanseatica“ (1674)of the Danzig Syndic Wenzel MittendorpIn the second half of the seventeenth Century, no one could dispute the decay of the Hanse. Yet the ultimate dissolution of this once famous and powerful alliance of cities and towns was not inevitable. Influential politicians in the principal Hanse towns and cities endeavored valiantly throughout the seventeenth Century to keep the league’s members together. One of these pro-Hanse politicians was the Danzig Syndic Wenzel Mittendorp, a Senator who had been active in the city for the better part of the first half of the seventeenth Century. Around mid-century he wrote a manuscript of roughly 1000 pages, the „Hanseatica“ (,Hanseatic affairs'), intended as a monument to his decades of service as a Hanse politician and containing his principal thoughts, ideas and arguments on and for the league. The manuscript is a unique source for historians since it gives us a detailed view on the perception of the forces of decay in the league. Moreover, since it is principally a historical account of the league, the manuscript can be judged to have been one of the first scholarly attempts to provide a coherent narrative of the league and thus to instill a sense of tradition into its readers. Regarding matters from the perspective of midseventeenth Century Danzig, Mittendorp looked mostly at the Kontors and identified their tribulations as the root of the crisis of the Hanse. Originally based on the economic success of the Kontors, the league was now decaying parallel to their decline. Mittendorp’s contribution was addressed to his fellow politicians in Danzig, in whom he wanted to inculcate a conviction of the value of continuing active membership in the Hanse; regardless of the problems of the Kontors. Tradition and advantages beyond the mere commercial constituted his principal arguments in favor of Danzig’s continuing membership in the Hanse. Notwithstanding his ultimate failure to achieve this goal, Mittendorp’s arguments give us an illuminating insight into the self-perception of the Hanse at one of its formerly principal centers at a time when the fundamental questions on the continuation or dissolution of the league forced its adherents to bring their most compelling arguments to the fore. The result was the „Hanseatica“, a unique source for any historian interested in the political mindset of Hanse politicians in the decades preceding the end of the league.

Städte an Zuiderzee und IJssel auf den Hansetagen

This article deals with the representation of the towns along the southern and eastern coasts of the former Zuiderzee and the River IJssel at the Hanseatic Diets between 1367, when Harderwijk, Elburg, and Kampen first attended, and 1507. Out of 102 assemblies in that period the Zuiderzee and IJssel towns’ delegates took part in 57. Unluckily, the extant sources provide little information on the course of the debates and the influence the councillors from the Zuiderzee and IJsseltowns might have exerted on the deliberations. Better documented are the numerous regional Diets which were held in order to prepare for the general gatherings. These regional meetings were convened in order to sound out the opinions of the regional Hanse towns and to decide on practical courses of action. This regional co-operation attained formal recognition when in 1447 a Tohopesate (a military alliance of Hanse towns) was signed, one which created an entirely new Hanseatic Quarter, uniting towns from the eastern Netherlands, the Rhine region and Westphalia, with Deventer and Nimwegen (Nijmegen) as conveners. Since taking part in the Hanseatic Diets and influencing its decisions was predicated on being a member of the Hanse, the exact status of Zwolle and Kampen is a crucial question, since both formally applied for ‘readmission’ to the Hanse in the first half of the 15th century. However, ‘readmission’ is a misleading term, since Zwolle and Kampen had long been part of the Hanse. It would seem that they were interested in a merely formal acknowledgement of their membership, even if their reasons are difficult to fathom. In the case of Kampen trade in Bergen might have been a factor. More importantly, these re-admissions to the Hanse occurred at a time when the towns of Holland were beginning to disengage from the Hanse and emerge as its competitors. This forced the Zuiderzee and IJssel towns to take sides. They managed to remain in favour with the Hanse, without breaking off commercial relations with Holland. This turned out rather well for the Hanse in general and for the towns. Thus, the Zuiderzee- and IJsseltowns functioned as a hinge (Bert Looper) between Holland and the Hanse. Once again, we see that the interplay of regional independence and common solidarity was an essential characteristic of the Hanse.

El cosmopolitismo urbano: la ciudad ante el orden postliberal

El artículo estudia la sucesión de cambios en la estructura política internacional ante la reconfiguración de las fuentes de poder. Establece tres vertientes en las bases teóricas del cosmopolitismo urbano. La primera indica cuáles deberían ser los fundamentos de una elaboración teórica. La ciudad internacional contribuye a la reconfiguración de la estructura y el ejercicio del poder interestatal ocupando o creando nuevos espacios que contribuyen a la pluralidad de las Relaciones Internacionales. El segundo aspecto que se analiza es el crecimiento de la ciudad como unidad de medida en la economía global. Los flujos de capital circulan y operan sobre una base local con destinos globales. Son las ciudades y sus extensiones metropolitanas quienes se benefician del sistema económico. Aparecen grandes bolsas de desigualdad interna y, sobre todo, con una ruptura entre ciudades dentro y fuera del orden económico, incluyendo aquí la desigualdad relacional que se genera en los territorios menos poblados. Por último, se incide en la razón antropocénica, esto es, el impacto de la acción humana en las condiciones naturales y sus consecuencias en el orden mundial. El cambio climático cambia el sustrato principal de las Relaciones Internacionales, que es el medio físico y la geografía. Sobre estas dos dimensiones tangibles, se ordenan las bases del poder y la teoría básica de los estudios internacionales. Al cambiar el tablero estratégico, la ciudad conquista posiciones de poder no coercitivo, lo que facilita la colaboración mediante redes y estructuras. El aspecto militar y de seguridad no es relevante para la diplomacia urbana, que se centra en aspectos de poder económico y social. Los resultados indican que el nuevo cosmopolitismo tiene bases urbanas y ofrece un marco de interpretación de las tensiones entre centro y periferia de la acción exterior, la globalización económica y las nuevas políticas públicas en la lucha contra el cambio climático. El cosmopolitismo urbano emerge como referencia teórica en el orden postliberal.

The cross-cultural interaction in the Baltic region in the fifteenth century: the vaults of the Faceted Palace in Novgorod the Great and Brick Gothic architecture

ABSTRACT Novgorod as a Hanseatic town took part in cross-cultural interaction in the Baltic region. The so-called Faceted Palace is a unique example of cooperation between German and local builders. The vaults generally receive little attention in the historiography on Brick Gothic architecture in the Baltics. This article introduces new data about the construction technique obtained during recent restoration of the Faceted Palace and proposes reconstruction of the vaults. Comparison with analogues in the Baltic region highlights the local interpretation of the complicated rib vaults and provides information on the origins of the builders.

Foreign trade of Russia and the German states in 1815-1837 in the context of customs reforms

The object of this research is the trade relations between Russia and the German states after the Congress of Vienna, established in the conditions of the large-scale customs reforms. Such changes were substantiated by the provisions of the Final Act and the need for renewal of trade systems in accordance with the relevant requirements. The article examines the stages of trade relations prior to the creation of the German Customs Union, which led to fundamental changes in trade situation in the German space. The author also analyzes trade in the initial years of existence of the German Customs Union for assessing its effectiveness and role in foreign trade relations between the German states and Russia. The main conclusion consists in confirmation of the thesis on sustainable trade relations with Prussia as the key trade partner of Russia in the German space. This conclusion was made due to the absence of evidence in the available sources and historiography on trade relations with other German states, except scarce information on the trade with Hanseatic League. After the establishment of the German Customs Union, Prussia is still in the picture of the Russian foreign trade statistics, which testifies to its crucial role in the new union and international disregard of the German Customs Union in the initial years of its existence. The article may be valuable for the audience studying the economic history of Russia and the German states in the first half of the XIX century.

Aspects and consequences of the Kingdom of England’s legislative regimes regarding the Hanseatic League, the Dutch Republic and Scotland

The article surveys elements of the Kingdom of England’s relations with the Hanseatic League, the Dutch Republic and Scotland throughout certain periods of history. There is a particular focus on legal measures and regulations adopted by England with regards to the traders of the Hanseatic League in the 14th and 15th centuries and Dutch traders in the 17th century. In relation to Scotland, there is an overview of how restrictions enacted by England helped to contribute in part to the Union of 1707, and of some consequences which followed on from this important historical development. The study can be said to be of interest in terms of certain developments taking place in Europe at the present time.

Schwächediskurse und Ressourcenregime

The paper examines how the focus and the guiding concepts of the new Collaborative Research Center (CRC, Sonderforschungsbereich 1095, Frankfurt a.M.), installed in 2015, on “Discourses of Weakness and Resource Regimes”, can be applied to legal history. The CRC analyzes the transformation of historical formations (states, cities, societies) by examining the internal debates on their own perceived deficits and the effects of these discussions on the formations themselves. After a brief introduction, the paper introduces the concept of discourses of weakness. It is a frequent historical phenomenon that internal or external observers detect a particular weakness in a historical formation and give voice to their observations. This typically leads to discourses which undermine complacency and spotlight problems. These debates can trigger changes of the rules by which resources are distributed within the formation. One has to distinguish such public controversies from factual weakness and avoid taking them at face value, since allegations of weakness typically serve a tactical or political purpose. The second part of the paper attempts to evaluate ‘resource regimes’ as a category of historical investigation. While there is common ground between the concepts ‘resource regimes’ and ‘institutions’, the term ‘institution’ is usually employed in a narrow economic context, while ‘resource regimes’ is a broader term denoting the norms and practices regulating the distribution of resources. The terms ‘resource regimes’ also opens up a path to an alternative understanding of the law: Law not as an abstract set of norms, but as an arena in which conflicts between parties are fought. The law structures these conflicts and tries to channel them into non-violent forms, and in the process of adjudication is itself altered in substance. The third part of the paper presents two case studies which illustrate these concepts. In the 1460s, England and the Hansa debated the question of Hanseatic deficits, namely the English claim that the Hansa constituted a person in law: The Hansa denied this in order to avoid collective liability for the depredations of individual merchants and sailors. This was not an attempt to create a historically viable self-definition, but the tactical use of an alleged weakness. The second case study regards the disputes between the Old and the New Council of Lübeck around 1410, which led to debates also involving the other Hanseatic towns and the aldermen of the Hanseatic Kontor in Bruges. Each of these parties can be understood as a resource regime. Their interaction generated a complex landscape of conflict marked by a mixture of collaboration and confrontation. The category ‘resource regimes’ helps to integrate processes of conflict management and conflict resolution into the broader and more flexible framework of legal and constitutional history. This is a powerful argument for viewing legal history as the history of culturally embedded legal practices. By focusing on controversies, conflicts and dynamics, our concepts can contribute to a new understanding of Hanseatic legal history.

Bremen, Harderwijk und die Zuiderzee

Bremen, Harderwijk and the ZuiderzeeThe Harderwijk peace treaty of 8 May 1446, negotiated by envoys of the duchy of Burgundy and the Hanse town Bremen and ratified by duke Philip the Good of Burgundy on 8 July 1446, brought to an end a war which had lasted for four years, during which Bremen had waged war on the Burgundian territories of Holland, Zealand, Flanders and Brabant in order to gain compensation for ships and goods which had been captured (mainly by privateers) in the conflict between Holland and the Wendish towns (1438– 41). During the latter conflict, neutral ships were been seized if they were suspected to be carrying Dutch or Flemish goods – a practice which also affected skippers and merchants from Kampen, Harderwijk and Deventer. Therefore Kampen repeatedly took the initiative to midwife an agreement between Bremen and Holland. At first, this failed to produce an acceptable result because Flanders could not be included. In the end, however, the negotiations in Harderwijk in April and May 1446 succeeded in bringing the war to an end. Bremen and Stade obtained financial compensation, to be funded by the towns of Holland and Zealand. Evidence of direct connections between Bremen and the Zuiderzee towns begins in the 14th century and concerns quarrels with citizens of Kampen and Deventer or the naturalization of immigrants from the Zuiderzee towns in Bremen. Beginning in the 12th and 13th centuries, vessels from Holland, Utrecht and Flanders on the one hand and from Bremen and Stade on the other used the shipping route via Vecht, Almere (later Zuiderzee) and Vlie for traffic and trade. From the 13th century, merchants from Bremen and from the Zuiderzee are found side by side in Norway and Scania trading in fish. In the 15th century, merchants of Kampen bought grain in Bremen, whereas merchants of Bremen purchased cloth in Deventer. Furthermore, Kampen, Deventer and Zwolle mediated in Bremen’s quarrels with merchants from Osnabrück and Cologne, with the town of Groningen and especially with Antwerpen. In the 16th century, the political and economic situation of the Zuiderzee towns changed radically, as they were first incorporated into the state of emperor Charles V, and then joined the Republic of the United Netherlands. At the same time, Bremen’s trade shifted to West Friesland and Amsterdam. Thus the intermediary position of the Zuiderzee Hanse towns – poised between Bremen and Holland – came to an end.

Zuiderzeestädte in der Hanse

The Zuiderzee towns and the Hanse: information exchange, conflicts and conflict resolution.This article uses the Zuiderzee region, and in particular Deventer, as a case study, to put forward two theses. First of all, that the exchange of information was a vital component of conflict resolution – and more broadly, of conflict management – within the Hanse. The analysis shows that the concepts of ‘centre’ and ‘periphery’, which have been recurrent in the discussions on the position of the Zuiderzee towns in the Hanse, were very relative. Wherever a conflict occurred which needed to be dealt with, information circles emerged as well, as the production and circulation of copies of letters and documents shows. The second thesis is that the exchange of information on conflict within the Hanse was embedded in a style of communication which was unique in the European context, and at the same time difficult to grasp because it was quite implicit and utterly self-evident to contemporaries. This leaps to the eye if we study the ramifications of a change of political context for Hanseatic towns like Deventer, which became part of the Habsburg Netherlands in 1528. A property conflict in the 1540s concerning a ship captured by Scotsmen, which was later bought by Deventer burghers, illustrates this. Rather than shaping their arguments to mesh with the new political conditions, they argued their case along the lines in which conflicts, and their resolution, had been handled and communicated in the Hanse.

Media Interpretation of the New Hanse: European Context

The article shows the interpretation of the role of the Hanseatic League of the New Age by the media. The theme of the New Hanse has become relevant in the recent years due to the growing importance of public diplomacy. Commentariat has its own function in exercising this diplomacy, as well as in PR-stunts for tourist brands. It was journalists who gave an impetus to the extensive promotion of tourism potential of The Golden Ring of Russia. The author states that the New Hanse, which includes 192 cities of 16 European countries, not only has a great tourism potential, but also provides an international political and communication resource in the contexts of the EU integrity crisis and global sanctions. Besides playing its communicative role in the cultural exchange, this potential is linked to politics of memory: for many European and Russian cities that have faded in importance it is a significant symbolic resource. The symbolic resource of the New Hanse is determined by positive moments in the history, by successful trade and prosperity of medieval cities, and does not have any separatist or conflict implication, unlike commemoration of the Victory and WWII. The author analyses interpretations of the New Hanse by both Russian and European media, and highlights components of Hanseatic media discourse, such as news hook, genre, content visualization, and newsmakers. The total number of media texts analyzed, which include texts in Russian and German published in the recent decade, is over 300. The sources of the Russian media texts are the Integrum archive and the archive of the International Journalist Contest Hanse as Continuity. The texts in German were found in the Internet by continuous sampling based on key words Die Hanse, Hansestädte, Hansebund. The author used the method of content-analysis to do the research. In addition, the author interviewed activists of the New Hanse from Pskov and Veliky Novgorod and monitored tourism industry in North-West Russia. The article describes some successful cases of project development of the Hanse theme in media space, and proposes variants of media interperetation of the the Hanses role.

Ships and their timber source as indicators of connections between regions

The precise dating and determination of the source of timbers in shipwrecks found around the coasts of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, through dendrochronology allows us to see connections between north and south, east and west throughout the region and to a high chronological precision. In this paper we take a look at results of recent analyses of timber from ships, and timber and barrel cargoes, to try to draw a chronological picture, from the twelfth to seventeenth centuries, of links between regions, through transport in oak ships and trade of timber. Archaeological finds of oak from timber cargos in shipwrecks and fine art objects (painted panels and sculpture) show the extent to which timber was shipped from Hanseatic towns along the southern Baltic coast, to western and north-western Europe.

The North Atlantic trade with Iceland, Shetland, Orkney and the Faroes and the policy of the Hanseatic Diet (1369–1535)

This paper explores the limits of the Hanseatic Diet’s ability to regulate Hanseatic trade with Iceland and the North Atlantic island groups of Shetland, Orkney and the Faroes*. It comes to the conclusion that the Hanseatic Diets prohibited direct commercial links to Shetland, Orkney and the Faroes consistently from 1416, but turned a blind eye to the Iceland trade. The reasons for this inconsistent policy were the necessity of maintaining the Bergen’s monopoly on the stockfish trade (which was also in the interest of the Danish-Norwegian crown), while at the same time keeping the door open for Hanseatic merchants who were not active in the Bergen trade to forge commercial links with Iceland, albeit at their own risk. The representatives of the Hanseatic towns often preferred to leave an issue undecided, in order to keep as many options open as possible. The huge divergence in the interests of merchants and towns forced the Diet to dissemble, pursuing policies out of the public gaze which subverted the resolutions the Diet had passed for public consumption.

Die Währungsunion benötigt eine Fiskalunion – aber welche? Eine Analyse der Euro-Reformblockade

Although the euro area looks back at a phase of comprehensive reforms, its fiscal institutions still lack a consistent shape. The article analyses how the competition between two distinct models of a European Fiscal Union (EFU) has created the current reform deadlock. This is the struggle between a centralised EFU with its broad arsenal of new European fiscal instruments that stress the idea of mutual insurance on the one hand, and a decentralised EFU that puts the emphasis on market discipline through sovereign insolvency procedures and national fiscal self-responsibility on the other hand. The article identifies the main camps on both sides of the controversy: The European Commission together with the European Central Bank and high-debt Member States favour a centralised EFU; low-debt Member States such as the countries of the Hanseatic League and Germany push towards a decentralised EFU. This conflict explains why currently substantial Commission euro area reform initiatives are either watered down or completely fail in the Eurogroup. Reform packages that combine key elements of both models could solve the dilemma. However, Member States increasingly lack the mutual trust that is indispensable to achieve such a grand bargain. The new severe economic and fiscal crisis that is caused by the COVID-19 pandemic might now speed up the decisions on the final outline of the EFU.

The food trade in the Baltic region: the place and role of Russia, 2013-2018

The article discusses the dynamics of export and import of food products of the Baltic region in 2013-2018. It is stated that the introduction of a ban on the import of agricultural and food products to Russia in August 2014 had a negative impact on trade and economic relations between the Russian Federation and other countries of the Baltic region. It is hoped that the crisis period in the relationship will end, and as in the days of the Hanseatic League, countries will be able to establish a dialogue and resume mutually beneficial trade relations.

Russia in the Mirror of Christian Bomhower’s “Schonnen Hysthorie”

The article examines the image of Russia and Russians created by a Livonian publicist of the early 16th century. Christian Bomhover in his propaganda pamphlet published in Cologne in 1508. The study is based on the original text in the Middle Low German dialect of German, in which the 1st edition of the work is written; data from other sources, both European and Russian, is also used. It is shown that Bomhover's work contains both stereotypical features of the West's perception of its Eastern neighbour, as well as some new observations due to the geopolitical features of the country's position and the specifics of the historical situation. The Russians, their faith, morals, way of waging war, and political system were depicted only in dark colours, in the most dark, frightening form. It is not possible to speak of any "balanced" presentation of material in Bomhower’s work. What else could one expect from a writer who looks at the enemy like a warrior prepared for war? Bomhower’s work had circulation in the lower Rhine, Westphalia, and the cities of the Hanseatic League. It was used and relied on primarily by preachers who urged the population of these lands to provide assistance to Livonia in its confrontation with Russia. Later it had a noticeable influence on the later Livonian Chronicles and on the work on Muscovy by the Imperial Ambassador Daniel Printz von Buchau, in which one can find both verbatim excerpts from it and a generally negative perception of the Russians. Some of the information about Russia and the Russian people, which is unreliable and clearly biased, was borrowed from Bomhover by Olaus Magnus, who inherited from his predecessor a complete rejection of the Russian world.

The Role of Trading Sanctions in the Creation of the Hanseatic League in the Second Half of the Fourteenth Century

The Role of Trading Sanctions in the Creation of the Hanseatic League in the Second Half of the Fourteenth Century